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COEfRIGHT DEPOSm 



LOYAL CITIZENSHIP 




Painting by Edward Simmons 

Fig. 1. Justice, the spirit of America. 



LOYAL CITIZENSHIP 



BY 



Thomas Harrison Reed, A.B., LL.B. 

Professor of Municipal Government 

University of California 

Author of ''Form and Functions of 

American Government" 



Illustrated with 122 engravings from 
photographs and drawings 




Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York 

WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

1922 



WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

THE HOUSE OF APPLIED KNOWLEDGE 



Established, 1905, by Caspar W. Hodgson 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NeW YoRK 

2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago 



At a moment when the fabric of our 
civihzation is shaken by world turmoil 
and unrest it is easy to realize the impor- 
tance of erecting in the minds of the future 
rulers of this country firm foundations of 
civic conduct. To that end this book offers 
for their instruction certain fundamental 
truths of economics and government 







BlC-l 



Copyright, 1922, by World Book Company 

Copyright in Great Britain 

All rights reserved 



printed in U.S.A. 



MM -5 1922 
g)Cl.A659969 



PREFACE 

THE course that this text is designed to fit has 
for its purpose the training of pupils for citizen- 
ship. To this end two things are essential: first, to 
give the pupil the necessary minimum of knowledge 
of the institutions and principles of government and 
society — old Civil Government reduced to its lowest 
terms plus new Economics and Sociology simplified 
to his understanding; and, second, to inculcate the 
habit of civic-mindedness not merely by example and 
precept but by practice as well. 

The first of these essentials — supplying necessary 
information — the text carries out directly, but with 
the qualification that the details of state and local 
government, so far as the^ depart from Jhe general 
pattern, are to be suppHed by the teacher or through 
special reports on the part of the pupil. 

The second essential — inculcating the habit of 
civic-mindedness — cannot be achieved without the 
teacher's own patriotic and devoted interest. The 
matter of interesting the pupil in the problems of 
citizenship has been given too little attention. It 
has been assumed that because children twelve to 
fifteen years of age are a long way from the ballot 
they can be taught only by abstractions about citi- 
zenship. They are, however, members of the com- 
munity and constantly sustain civic relations. They 
can be taught the civic point of view more effectively 
by the continued conscious practice of civic virtues 
than in any other way. Many of the "Civic Activi- 
ties" are based on the idea of getting the class to 
work for the community welfare. The teacher may 

V 



vi Preface 

well keep in mind the following passage from John 
Dewey {Moral Principles in Education), "What the 
normal child continuously needs is not so much 
isolated moral lessons upon the importance of truth- 
fulness and honesty, or the beneficent results that 
follow from a particular act of patriotism, as the 
formation of habits of social imagination and concep- 
tion.'' 

The topics and activities suggested at the ends of 
the chapters are very numerous; there are far more 
of them than can be effectively utilized. It is ex- 
pected that the teacher will choose among them. 

In the attempt to dramatize the problems of gov- 
ernment for the pupils the teacher will find brief 
plays, masques, or pageants useful. They have been 
occasionally suggested under the head of "Civic 
Activities," but this does not by any means exhaust 
the possibilities of their use. The teacher will find 
helpful the following : Payne, F. Ursula, Plays and 
Pageants of Citizenship; Tucker and Ryan, His- 
torical Plays of Colonial Days; Mackaye, Percy, 
The New Citizenship. 

The references are few in number and are almost all 
to books commonly used and not too difficult. This 
does not mean that periodical literature should not 
be largely relied on for the report work of the pupils. 
Every public library has indexes to periodical litera- 
ture, and the sooner the pupil learns to use them the 
better. A list of the most useful periodicals which 
should, if possible, be included in the school or class 
library is given in Appendix 1. 



CONTENTS 

PART ONE 

Social and Economic Fundamentals 

Cooperation and Liberty 

chapter page 

1. The Famh^y \ 

2. From Faahly to Nation 7 

3. Cooperation in Work 14 

4. Capital,, the Partner of Labor 23 

5. Getting Capital: Thrift 33 

6. The Function of Money 42 

7. Demand, Supply, and Competition 51 

PART TWO 
The Fundamentals of Citizenship 

Liberty and Democracy ^ 

8. The Privileges of Citizenship 63 

9. The Duties of Citizenship 70 

10. Elections 76 

11. Political Parties 83 

12. Nominations 90 

.13. Estimating Candidates 95 

14. The Citizen as Lawmaker 101 

PART THREE 
The Citizen and the Local Community 

Cooperation and Self-Government 

15. The Local Community 109 

16. City Government 118 

17. Town and Township Government 125 

18. County Government 129 

19. Local Management of Schools 135 

20. Police and Fire Protection 139 

21. Preservation of Health 148 

vii 



viii Contents 

chapter page 

22. Community Planning 160 

23. Public Utilities 172 

24. Charity 181 

25. Training Citizens 186 

PART FOUR 
The Citizen in State and Nation 

Liberty and Law 

26. Constitutional System 195 

27. Making Law 203 

28. Carrying Out the Law 214 

29. Interpreting and Applying the Law 221 

30. Territories and Dependencies — The District of Co- 

lumbia ..... 232 

PART FIVE 
Some Problems of Larger Citizenship 

Cooperation for the Common Good 

31. Problems of Labor 241 

32. The Care of Delinquents and Defectives 250 

33. Conservation of Natural Resources 255 

34. Development of Communications 264 

35. Footing the Bills 275 

36. Our Place in the World 284 

Appendixes 

1. Reference Lists 297 

2. Constitution of the United States ........ 299 

Index 321 



PART ONE 
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC FUNDAMENTALS 

Cooperation and Liberty 



The essential element in patriotism, in 
the higher patriotism, is unity of spirit — 
the ability and the disposition to work to- 
gether for a common good ; and this unity 
is promoted by getting a large and 
worthy idea of what the common good is. 

Washington Gladden 




Library of Congress 

Fig. 2. "The Family," a painting by Charles Sprague Pearce. 



CHAPTER ONE 

The Family 

The family as protector and provic^r. In the 
hves of most young people, by far the most important 
fact is family. The family provides not only food, 
clothing, and shelter, but also the affectionate care 
and protection which children must have for many 
years before they can make their own way in life. 
The family was one of the first associations that existed 
among human beings, and it remains the most important 
one into which they enter (Fig. 2). 

Dependence upon the family lasts much longer 
among human beings than it does among the lower 
animals, whose young soon become self-supporting. 
Until a girl is eighteen and a boy twenty-one, they 
are regarded by the law as "minors" and must obey 
the commands of their parents; and some young 
people are supported and cared for by their famihes 
until after they are grown men and women, gradu- 
ates, often, of universities or professional schools. 

1 



2 Loyal Citizenship 

Cooperation. The purpose of the family is to 
increase the welfare of its members. It accompHshes 
this through cooperation. The father earns the Hving 
in shop or office or on the farm. The mother ruanages 
the house, cooks or sees to the cooking, and cares for 
the young children. The children help here and there 
with errands, chores, or small earnings. In the well- 
conducted family, all work together for the common 
good. / 

Authority. If every member of a family always 
acted as he pleased without regard to the rest, the 
usefulness of that family would be lost. In most 
cases natural affection and a common purpose bring 
about agreement, especially among the grown mem- 
bers of a family. Children, however, are not always 
wise enough to appreciate the wisdom of their par- 
ents. For them there must be, to keep the family 
acting in harmony, the authority of parents. 

When hungry wolves were poking their noses into 
the chinks of the family hut, there was no chance for 
debate as to what each member should do. In primi- 
tive times, therefore, prompt family cooperation was 
obtained through the unlimited authority of the father. 
This was the situation with the early Romans, among 
whom the father had even the power of life and 
death over his children. There is no longer need for 
such extreme power in the hands of one parent: 
milder authority over the children is now sufficient, 
and it belongs to both parents jointly. 

Family as a type of government. When a boy's 
mother tells him to wear his rubbers on a rainy day, 



The Family 3 

he is subject to government His parents' commands 
are law to him ; when he was younger, they were his 
only law. The necessity for such law and such 
authority arises from the fact that all the members of 
a family are not equal in knowledge, wisdom, and 
goodness. 

Force. Unfortunately, not all persons who ought 
to obey do so willingly, and children sometimes 
require force or the fear of it to make them obedient 
to even the best rules. There are parents who say 
that they never "force" or "punish" their children, 
meaning that they never whip them. All parents, 
however, make use either of superior physical or 
mental force to secure obedience. Withim the family 
we find proof of the fact that force is necessary to 
make government and law effective. 

Liberty and restraint. Above all other things, 
people appreciate liberty — the freedom to go and to 
do as they please. Liberty is one of the principal 
elements in any one's happiness, and those who are 
deprived of it suffer severely, regardless of their 
material comfort. 

Unrestrained liberty, however, would be impossi- 
ble even among savages. It would at once destroy 
the usefulness of the family, which is the first social 
unit (Fig. 3). If, for example, when the family sat 
down to dinner, the father as the strongest helped 
himself to all that was best on the table, and if each 
other member grabbed and kept what he could, the 
weakest would get very Httle, and there would be an 
end of the family as a provider of food. There 



4 



Loyal Citizenship 



should be in the family and in society generally as 
much liberty for even the least member as will not 




Fig. 3. The family is the social unit about which 
all government centers. 



interfere with successful cooperation. Liberty must 
be restrained in order to secure orderly and safe living 
conditions; all the more so, because without restraint 
liberty would come to be anarchy and true liberty would 
be lost to all. 

QUESTIONS 

What are two of the chief purposes of the family? In the state 
where you live, how long must children go to school? At what age 
do boys and girls of your acquaintance begin to earn a living? In 



The Family 



what respects is family life prefereible to life in an institutional 
home? What is cooperation? Give examples of it inside the home; 
outside the home. What reason exists for parental authority? 
What hght does this throw on government and law? Why must 
there be force behind authority? What is hberty? Can any one 
have aU the liberty he wants? Why? What are the Umits of liberty 
in the home? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Look up "government," "liberty," and "law" in any good 
encyclopedia or in any of the standard texts such as Garner, J. W., 
Introduction to Political Science; Gettell, R. G., Introduction to 
Political Science; Leacock, S., Elements of Political Science. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Let each of the pupils resolve to do at home some helpful thing 
that he has not been told to do by his parents. ^ 

Suggested activities for boys: 

1. Install an electric bell and care for it. 

2. Clean the windows of your house or apartment. 

3. Make a useful crevice for the home. 

4. Bait the hook, and catch, clean, and cook a fish. 

5. Make a set of practical playthings for a child three years old. 

6. Weed the garden or clean up the back yard. 

7. Cut and rake the grass. 

8. Clean up the barn or other outbuildings. 

9. Chop a quantity of kindling wood and pile it neatly in its 
proper place. 

10. Inspect your home and see whether there is any carpentering 
that needs to be done that a boy can do; if there is, do it. 

Suggested activities for girls (adapted from Home Craft Honors 
for the Camp Fire Girls) : 

1. Gather two quarts of wild berries or fruits and make them into 
a dessert. 

2. Wash and iron a dress. 

3. Clean the ice chest thoroughly twice a week for two weeks. 

4. Put away clothing, rugs, furs, or blankets for a season. 

5. Cook the dinner for the family so as to give your mother a rest. 



Loyal Citizenship 

6. Take care of the baby or amuse the younger children on rainy 
days. 

7. Tell a bedtime story to your younger brother or sister. 

8. Gather a group of four or five little children together and 
teach them Safety First. 

9. Do the dusting without being asked to do so by your mother. 




c3 e> OXD 
'cy T/Z E N5 S WV? 



J 



LEADER-SHIP 




y^-y-^-.^\-----::\ 



SER.VIC,E 



COOPERATION 



I 



\ 



OBEDIENCE 



Fig. 4. Steps to good citizenship. Each of these must be 
climbed. There is no short cut to good citizenship. 



CHAPTER TWO 
From Family to Nation 

Family and clan. If human cooperation had 
stopped with the family, we should still be poor 
savages,^ often suffering from cold and hunger. But 
ages before the beginning of history, larger groups of 
kinsfolk came to be formed. These groups, known 
as clans, afforded better protection than the family could 
give against wild animals and savage men. The 
conduct of clan members toward one another was 
governed by rules or laws that, for the most part, 
grew naturally out of the experiences of clan life. 
These laws might be preserved in the memories of 
the elders or priests and applied by an a'fesembly of 
the people or of the warriors. Those AA'ho broke them 
were in many cases put to death or thrust out of the 
clan to perish in the wilderness. Old laws were harsh. 
Keeping ahve was a difficult matter for primitive 
men, and no one could be allowed to endanger the 
clan's chance to survive. 

The nation. As time Avent on, clan groups be- 
came tribes and tribes merged into nations. As the 
areas within which law ruled became wider, the security 
of individuals became greater, and they could better 
practice the arts of peace and civilization. After 
centuries of struggle, only a comparatively small 
number of nations have survived, and not more than 
six of these are of the first importance. 

Within a nation men cooperate to secure peace. 
Thus, as Americans, we regulate our dealings with 
one another by laws, and join with all our country- 



8 Loyal Citizenship 

men to repel attack from the outside. That our 
laws may be fair, well understood, and obeyed, we 
have legislatures to make them, courts to interpret 
them, and executive officers to enforce them. Our 
government has been a wonderful success. It is over a 
century since the last armed soldier of a hostile for- 
eign power departed from our country. We are safe 
in our homes, on the streets, and in the schools. 
There are, of course, persons of criminal tendencies 
who seek to injure others, but they are few and are 
able to do comparatively little harm. 

In the earliest times the enemy lurked just outside 
the circle of the family camp fire. In clan days he 
was kept back only by the village stockade. With 
the growth of nations, visible danger has been thrust 
back farther and farther, until today it is a long way 
from most of us. This does not mean that life is now 
altogether easy and safe ; but the citizen can at least 
lie down at night reasonably confident that he will 
awaken to find his possessions safe and those he cares 
for unharmed . Cooper at ion for peace and safety w ith in 
a nation is the greatest political achievement of man. 
Further progress wiU lie in the direction of more 
perfect cooperation among nations. 

Authority and the growth of individual rights. 
Cooperation among many people distributed over a 
large area cannot be secured without the exercise 
of a good deal of authority. In fact, in the develop- 
ment of nations there were long periods when abso- 
lute or nearly absolute power was wielded by one 
man, the king. There were then few, if any, rights of 



From Family to Nation 




iS^ ^k 




Fig. 5. "Out!" The umpire's authority could not 
be questioned here. 

the individual that the king was bound to respect. 
Just as the absolute authority of the father over his 
children gave place to a milder rule, so absolute mon- 
archy gradually disappeared. 

In all of Europe and America great struggles for 
freedom have taken place, and the liberty of the 
individual has been widely safeguarded. In the his- 
tory of the English-speaking peoples, the rights of the 
individual against authority were first stated in 
Magna Charta (1215), reaffirmed in the Bill of Rights 
(1689), newly stated in America in the Declaration of 
Independence (1776), and made the highest law of the 
United States in our Constitution, particularly in the 
first ten amendments. 



10 Loyal Citizenship 

Liberty and authority in government. Definite 
limits for liberty and for authority are not easy to 
indicate. Other things being equal, the larger the 
group brought together for any purpose, the more 
authority there must be if the members of the group 
are to work together in an orderly manner. A com- 
mittee of three, for example, can discuss a question 
without a presiding officer or any rules for debate. If 
all do talk at once, Httle harm is done. But in a 
meeting of over a thousand, like a national party 
convention, there will be required a whole book of 
rules, a strong chairman armed with a gavel to inter- 
pret and declare them, and a sergeant-at-arms with 
deputies to enforce authority. The 105,000,000 peo- 
ple of the United States today need more laws than 
did the 3,000,000 of 1787. In considering how far it 
is right to restrict liberty, these points should be 
remembered : 

For Liberty For Authority 

1. Liberty is an important ele- 1. Absence of restraint alone 
ment in every person's happi- does not give real liberty. We 
ness. cannot be wholly free except 

2. Liberty is necessary to pro- under circumstances that make 
gress. A slave has no incentive life unattractive. 

to improve anything. A people 2. Liberty must stop short of 
kept in bondage can have no the point where it imperils soci- 
free interchange of ideas, with- ety, for society makes the enjoy- 
out which there can be little ment of liberty possible. The 
progress. happiness of the people as a 

3. It is through liberty alone whole is infinitely more impor- 
that people can prepare for tant that the happiness of any 
liberty. No man can learn self- indiAadual. 

control, except by controlling 3. The liberty of one person 

himself. No people can learn must not conflict with the 

self-government except by gov- liberty of another, 
erning itself. 



From Family to Nation 



11 



Liberty and self-government. We have earned 
the right to be called a free people, not so much by 
lessening the authority that may be exercised over us 
as by self-government. Even severe rules do not seem 
oppressive when we make them for ourselves. Stu- 
dent self-government, some form of which now exists 
in most colleges and in many other schools, is suc- 
cessful because students so willingly submit to disci- 
pline of their own making. The Americans of the 
Revolutionary period refused to pay a trifling tax on 
tea because it was laid by a Parliament in which 
they were not represented; but they were ready to 




Fig. 6. There can be no right without a corresponding duty. Unless 
all have duties none have rights. The even balance between rights 
and duties gives true liberty. 



12 Loyal Citizenship 

submit to heavy taxation when it was imposed by 
their own representatives. 

It frequently happens that we are called on to 
obey laws that we did not wish to have passed, and 
we obey them. Since there are bound to be dif- 
ferences of opinion, it is only fair that final authority 
should rest with the majority. On no other basis 
could our liberties be maintained. It is only through 
doing oiu" duty as citizens — obeying lawful authority 
— that we can cooperate to maintain the privileges 
of citizenship. 

QUESTIONS 

What advantages did clan life give? How were clans governed? 
What relation does the size of the areas in which men cooperate for 
peace bear to civilization? How does the dictionary define "govern- 
ment"? Wherein, in your opinion, has the United States government 
been especially successful? What has become of the enemies that 
used to threaten every family? What did kings have to do with the 
growth of nations? What are the principal landmarks in the history 
of liberty in English-speaking countries? Why are more rules 
necessary for the guidance of a large body of people than a small 
one? What arguments can you give for liberty? for authority? 
How would you apply these principles to an actual case? How does 
self-government reconcile us to authority? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The government and way of life of the Angles, Jutes, and Saxons 
before they invaded England, and the development of the English 
nation out of these invading tribes, will make interesting subjects 
for reports. These reports wiU illustrate concretely the change 
from clan to nation which the text describes in general terms. 
Material may be found in Green's Short History of the English People 
or in any other standard Ehglish history. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 
A liberty hour. The program should include the recitation of 
extracts from Magna Charta, the English Bill of Rights, the Declara- 



From Family to Nation 



13 



tion of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Constitution of the 
United States (first ten amendments), and the similar provisions of 
the state constitution. Such numbers may be interspersed with 
patriotic songs and selections in verse or prose. , The American 
Spirit: A Basis for World Democracy, by Monroe-Miller, contains 
excellent material. 

Organize the class for purposes of self-government. Future recita- 
tions may be conducted through this class organization. The adop- 
tion of a constitution, the election of officers, and the study of rules 
of order will give practical training of immense value and will, at 
the same time, greatly stimulate student interest. The first step 
may well be the resolution of the class to organize. Then will 
follow in order: (1) The election of temporary officers, (2) appoint- 
ment of a committee to submit a draft of a constitution, (3) report 
of this committee, (4) action on the report, (5) election of permanent 
officers (their term should be short enough to allow offices to be 
passed around generally). These steps in class organization will 
occupy all the time that can be spared from a numbe%of recitations 
based on matter in succeeding chapters. See the first paragraph 
under "Civic Activities" at the end of Chapter 10. 




Fig. 7. The great seal of the United 
States. Besides its flag, each of the 
nations has a device that stands for its 
sovereignty. Similarly, in primitive 
times each clan had its totem. 



CHAPTER THREE 

Cooperation in Work 

Work. No good thing can he had without work, 
except the free gifts of nature, such as hght and air. 
Rehind the food we eat, the clothing we wear, and 
every comfort we enjoy, is work. You could not 
stretch yourself in an easy-chair, except for the fact 
that some one had labored to build it. Most men and 
women work hard, and it is necessary that they 
should, for there is scarcely enough food in the world 
to go round. 

Fortunately, work is not in itself an evil, although 
too much of it may be. Many people rather shrink 
from work; but in reasonable quantities it makes 
people stronger, better, and happier than they would 
be without it. Every one should work at least enough 
to pay his own way. The tramp, the criminal, and 
the loafer — ^whether rich or poor — are all dead 
weights to be carried by the rest of us; they do not 
cooperate. 

Division of occupation. There was a time when 
each family was seK-supporting. The game and fish 
it ate, the skins it wore, the wood it burned, the rude 
hut that sheltered it, were all produced by the family 
itself. If cooperation had never gone any farther 
than the family, we should have scanty food, 
clothing, and shelter, and few other material advan- 
tages. With the spread of cooperation to a larger 
unit, the clan, came the opportunity for division of 
occupation. If one man proved to be an exceptionally 
good maker of arrows, he could make more than he 

14 



Cooperation in Work 



15 




U. S. D. 



Fig. 8, Counting sheep on a Western ranch. The cooperation of men 
everywhere — of workers with hand and brain — is necessary to pro- 
duce the food we eat and the clothing we wear. 

needed for himself and exchange the extra ones for 
game, fish, skins, or whatever else he could get. 
Another clansman might devote himself to making 
hammers, and because of his skillful labor the com- 
munity would have a better supply of hammers than 
it had before. Thus, division of occupation increased 
until the common trades we know today came into 
being, as carpentering, blacksmithing, and masonry. 
Society was better off because a given number of 
persons, each skilled in a particular task, could 
accomplish more than an equal number of Jacks-of- 
all- trades. As the areas of peace and order grew, there 
was still further division of occupation. One village 
had clay for bricks and exchanged its bricks for an- 



16 



Loyal Citizenship 




American Wooleii Company 

Fig. 9. Sorting and grading wool at a mill in Massachusetts. The 
occupation of these expert judges of wool is very different from that 
of the ranchers, yet it contributes to the same end. 

other village's salt fish or yet another's tanned hides; 
and so cooperation among men has extended until 
today the very clothes we wear are the product of 
every clime and represent the labor of ten thousand 
hands. 

The story of a woolen suit. Up on the highlands 
of southern Wyoming are a lonely sheep herder and 
his flock. We shaU not try to trace the career of the 
sheep herder, although it took the cooperation of 
many people to get him and his outfit on the range. 
At dipping time he drives the sheep to the dipping 
vats; at shearing time to the shearing pens. Here 
the brawny hands of others are brought into action. 



Cooperation in Work 



17 




American Woolen Company 

Fig. 10. Spinning woolen yarn. These intricate and costly spinning 
frames effect an enormous economy of labor. Their product enters 
into the clothing of millions of people. We could not have such 
machines if it were not for capital. 



The sheared wool, in bags, is carried perhaps fifty 
miles by motor truck to a railway station. There 
the bags are loaded on a car, which in tm-n becomes 
part of a train, and the shipment starts for Chicago 
or Boston. A multitude of brains and hands help to 
run the series of railroads over which the wool 
journeys. Once arrived at the raihoad terminal, the 
bags of wool are bumped over the pavements, again 
by truck, to a great wool warehouse. Thence the 
bags go to a woolen mill, perhaps in Massachusetts, 
where the wool is put through processes which make 
it first into yarn and then into cloth. There are 



18 



Loyal Citizenship 




American Woolen Company 

Fig. 11. Weaving the woolen yarn into cloth. The modern world 
could scarcely be clothed if we depended on the old-time weaver at 
his hand loom. 

dippings, dyeings, spinnings, weavings, the work of 
delicate machines directed by skilled hands. Away 
goes the finished cloth to a New York clothing ihanu- 



Cooperation in Work 



19 



facturer, and once more many flying fingers are set 
to work. Designers, cutters, stitchers, and finishers 
bend over it until the suit is produced and starts on 
its journey to the retail store. There a clerk sells it, 
a cashier takes the money and records the trans- 
action, and finaUy a man delivers it at the purchaser's 
door. 

Kinds of work. The many kinds of work that 
are required to supply a suit of clothes, to furnish a 
meal, or to build a house are all honorable because 
they contribute to the welfare of humanity. Some 
labor is done chiefly with the hands, some chiefly with 
the head. It is perhaps difficult to realize that the 




Fig. 12. The manufacture of cloth into clothing. Some of 
these men do nothing but stitch buttonholes and others 
sew only hems or seams. From ranch to clothing factory, 
many kinds of work are performed by many different peo- 
ple, and the result of their combined efforts is the woolen 
suit that you may wear. 



20 Loyal Citizenship 

chief of a great corporation is working, as he sits 
behind a big, clean desk for a few hours a day dictat- 
ing letters and receiving callers. He may, however, 
be working hard and effectively indeed. Compara- 
tively few men can think clearly and continuously 
enough to fill positions like his. Such a man's work 
is of a kind that not many are quaUfied to undertake. 
He carries the burden of responsibility. It is often 
more trying to say "y^s" or "no" — to make a de- 
cision on an important question — than to saw a 
cord of wood. 

Competition. Half a dozen boys are lined up at 
the mark for a quarter-mile race. Revolver in hand, 
the starter stands just behind them. Every muscle 
is taut, every face strained with excitement. Each of 
the boys is eager to compete — to run until his legs 
ache and his feet grow heavy, and until his breath 
comes in painful gasps. WhyP Because there is a 
cup for the winner .^^ That has something to do with 
it, especially in getting up the race; but once in the 
race, the boys will run their best, cup or no cup. 
The real reason for their effort will be the desire to 
excel, the determination to win. The competitive 
spirit, which prompts each boy to do his best, is a 
common human quality. 

The gun cracks and the quarter-milers are off at a 
terrific pace. Who will winP Barring accident, the 
best runner — fhe one with a combination of natural 
running ability, good training, strength of will, 
quickness of wit. Why all this effort to find out who 
is fastest at 440 yards P Why not have a debate on 



Cooperation in Work 



21 




Fig. 13. The finish of a hard race. The spirit of coi%petition has 
caused each runner to do his best. 

the subject followed by vote among the people in the 
stands.^ Racing is hard and painful for the racers, 
but it is the only way to determine the best runner. 
Competition is necessary to bring out the best efforts of 
all of us. It is through competition that the leaders 
in business and industry are selected. In no other 
way can their abilities be proved. But competition, 
however vigorous, ought to be fair and even generous. 
Roosevelt said, "Don't flinch, don't foul, and hit 
the hne hard!" Success cannot be won by indiffer- 
ence, laziness, and cowardice, but only by putting 
forth our best effort — ^by steady and honest work. 

Work, capital. The principles of cooperation and 
competition, opposed as they may appear to be, are 
essential to successful work. To make both of these 
principles most highly effective we need another 
economic force — capital. 



22 Loyal Citizenship 

QUESTIONS 

What things are to be had without work? Is work good or bad 
for us? Is there any reason why each person who is able to do so 
should not pay his own way? What is meant by division of occupa- 
tion? Give examples. How has division of occupation progressed? 
Why is most work honorable? Does the brain worker really work? 
In what sense is the carrying of responsibility work? What is meant 
by competition? What effect does it have in developing energy? 
Why is not the process of election always as good a means of picking 
men as competition? What danger is there in competition? How 
can it be avoided? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The history of other familiar articles, as hats and shoes, may be 
traced as we have traced the history of a woolen suit. The trades in 
your community may be made the subject of reports. Information 
concerning these can be obtained through business men and labor 
officials. 

There are no books dealing with the fundamentals of economics 
in which the facts are simply enough stated for ordineiry presenta- 
tion in the eighth or ninth grade. The nearest approach is probably 
Ely and Wicker, Elementary Principles of Economics. The teacher 
will find valuable for personal use the standard works on Economics, 
such as those of Taussig, Seager, Mill, Walker, Hobson, and Mar- 
shall. Approach to economic fundamentals may frequently be best 
achieved by way of economic history. See Bogart, E. L., Economic 
History of the United States; Cheyney, E. P., Industrial and Social 
History of England; Coman, K., The Industrial History of the United 

States. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

A visit to a local factory in which division of labor is easily observa- 
ble will help to make clear this and succeeding chapters. 

There is frequently some much-needed piece of work about the 
school or community that a vigorous group of young people can very 
quickly perform. If possible, arrange to have the class do it in such 
a way as to illustrate the worth of cooperation and division of 
occupation. 

A work report (anonymous) might be handed in by each pupil. 
It should state what work the pupil has done during the preceding 
week, the hours, and the compensation, if any, received. The teacher 
should combine the reports into one, with suitable comments. 



CHAPTER FOUR 
Capital, the Partner of Labor 

The beginnings of capital. There was a time 
when men pm'sued their game barehanded or with 
sticks or rocks that they chanced to find. In time, 
however, some savage made a stone hammer, and 
later, perhaps, another made a spear. To make 
these weapons took a great deal of labor, both of 
mind and body, but once they were made, game was 
more easily taken (Fig. 14). These primitive weap- 
ons were capital. Attracted by the flavor of a wild 
plant, some barbarian coUected its seeds and saved 
them for planting in the spring. These seeds were 
capital, like the hammer and spear. \^ere any- 
thing is created or saved for the purpose of using it as 
an aid to further production, that thing is capital. 

Capital and wealth. At the time when the sim- 
plest forms of capital were created other articles 
were being accumulated: some for utihty, like 
earthen jars; others for luxury, like beads and rings. 
These contributed directly to the satisfaction of 
their owners, as capital contributed indirectly. To- 
gether with capital they made up the wealth of early 
men. Every useful thing, except such things as light 
and air which belong freely to all, is wealth. Capital 
is wealth, though many articles of wealth are not 
capital (Figs. 15 and 16). 

Property. Anything that is owned is property. 
Next to life and hmb, property early came to be the 
thing most carefuUy protected. "Thou shalt not 
steal" was one of the first laws, and as the areas of 

23 



24 



Loyal Citizenship 




David C. Lithgow 

Fig. 14, An Iroquois worker in stone. The weapons that he made 
for use in the hunt were capital. 

cooperation for purposes of government have ex- 
tended, property has been made more and more 
safe. It sometimes seems that property is not dis- 
tributed among men very fairly — it is certainly not 



Capital, the Partner of Labor 



25 



distributed evenly; and there are persons who beheve 
that there should be no such thing as individual 
property, that all wealth should be owned by the 
community, share and share alike. The most impor- 
tant of the many reasons why the right of property 
should he respected is that this right encourages men to 
create more useful things than they can immediately use. 
Thus the community's stores of wealth and capital 
are increased, and the Avell-being of all men is 
promoted. 

The reward of labor and saving. It takes some- 
thing besides labor to create capital. In the time a 
savage fisherman spent at making a dug-out canoe, 
he could have caught many fish from the Isank. In 




Fig. 15. Articles of luxury, 
such as these, are beautiful, but 
they do not help in the produc- 
tion of other goods. They are 
wealth, but not capital. 



Fig. 16. Tools, materials, and 
machines that are used in pro- 
duction are both wealth and 
capital. 



26 Loyal Citizenship 

order to make the canoe, he had to give up the present 
enjoyment of his leism'e or of the fish that he might 
have taken. This was abstinence (which amounts to 
the same thing as saving). The inducement he had 
for digging out the canoe and abstaining from enjoy- 
ment was the prospect of a better supply of fish after 
he got the canoe built. The fact that the canoe would 
be his property and that he would get the benefit of 
its use greatly encouraged the fisherman in the crea- 
tion of this piece of capital. 

It is stifi with a view to encouraging the creation 
of capital that inventions are allowed to be patented. 
When the government grants a patent, the inventor 
is given for a term of years the exclusive property 
right in his idea. A man will work hard to make a 
discovery if he knows that he will be allowed a 
property right in it that will reward him for his 
labor and thought. The rights of authors and 
composers in their works are protected by copyright, 
as inventions are protected by patent, and for 
similar reasons. 

Capital and division of labor. Labor and capital 
are really partners in production, one being as necessary 
as the other. Division of labor and the use of capital 
have grown side by side. No man alone could have 
invented and built the comphcated and expensive 
machinery that is used to cut the wool off a sheep's 
back and finally turn it into clothing. When, how- 
ever, division of labor had been carried to the point 
where each worker did some simple task, it was 
easier to invent a machine to do that task. The use 



Capital, the Partner of Labor 



27 




Fig. 17. An old-time cobbler, who worked with- 
out much assistance from capital. His output was 
small, and so was his reward. 

of capital made possible the increased division of 
labor and the building of the machinery also. To- 
day few workers ever make the whole of anything. 
In a shoe factory, for example, one man does nothing 
but nail on heels, day in and day out. This is much 
less interesting for him than it would be to make 
whole pairs of shoes. He has ceased to buy leather, 
make it up into shoes with his own tools, and to pay 
himself by selling the product. The appliances for 
shoemaking are now costly machines, too expensive for 



28 Loyal Citizenship 

the individual worker to own; and they can be used 
economically only by many specialized workers. More 
shoes are made in a factory and at less cost than 
would be possible by hand labor. The worker in the 
shoe factory gets more articles in return for his labor 
than did the old-time shoemaker (Fig. 17). In the first 
instance, however, he gets his pay in the form of 
wages. 

Paying for capital. To do his part in modern in- 
dustry, the capitalist must provide the raw materials 
to be made up; the supplies, such as coal and oil, 
that are consumed in the work; the tools and ma- 
chinery with which the work is done ; and the wages 
of labor employed upon it. It is clear that if he is to 
continue in business he must sell the product for enough 
to pay back the cost of the materials and supplies used 
and the wages paid to get the work done. If he 
only got that much, however, it would not be 
enough. We know that an automobile that was 
bought a year ago for $1,500 wiU not be worth $1,500 
today. It has been driven perhaps 10,000 miles, and 
if aU injuries have been repaired carefully it will be 
worth maybe $1,200. The next year it will be worth 
still less, and so on until it can be sold for nothing but 
the price of its metal as junk. Similarly, depreciation 
takes place in the tools and machinery in a factory. 
The product must sell for enough more than its 
immediate cost to offset depreciation — to pay for 
necessary repairs and to enable the capitahst to lay 
by something with which to replace buildings and 
equipment when the old are worn out. 



Capital, the Partner of Labor 29 

Even if a capitalist were assured of getting out of 
an industry all that he put into it, that assurance 
alone would scarcely induce him to work and save 
in order to create capital. The savage who made 
the canoe got more fish as a reward for his labor 
and sacrifice while building. The modern capitalist 
must get a reward too. That reward we call interest. 
Interest induces men to give up present enjoyment 
for the sake of greater power of enjoyment in the 
future. The term "interest" is commonly used to 
describe the sum a borrower pays for the privilege 
of a loan — the use of capital. 

When a capitalist receives a greater reward than he 
could get for lending his capital to some one else on 
good security, we call that excess over interest ''profit.'' 
The hope of getting back all that he invested plus 
interest will not induce a man to put his savings into 
an uncertain enterprise. For that he must have the 
prospect of unusual reward — ^profit. Most new enter- 
prises are uncertain, and if profit were done away 
with, there would be httle or no business progress. 
If a capitahst puts his own time into the management 
of a business, he, like other workers, is entitled to 
wages for that service in addition to interest or profit. 

Getting capital. So far we have been speaking of 
capital as "things," which it really is. In everyday 
life and speech, however, it is represented as rrwney. 
We do not speak of the capital of a railroad as so 
many engines, cars, and miles of road. We speak of 
it as so much money which represents the worth of 
the engines, cars, and road. It was the accumulated 



30 



Loyal Citizenship 




National City Company 

Fig. 18. Hidden wealth helps no one, but money properly invested 
aids industry the world over. 

savings, in money, of many people, that provided the 
capital for the railroad. Capital for a modern enter- 
prise is not provided by saving actual tools or ma- 
chines for future production. The money that repre- 
sents the value of the tools or machines required for 
production is saved largely from the incomes of 
individuals, and we speak of "saving money," rather 
than "saving capital." 

Banks. Hidden savings are not capital, hut money 
deposited in a hank hecomes capital when it is lent to 
persons who use it productively, A commercial bank 



Capital, the Partner of Labor 31 

receives money on deposit and lends money for short 
, periods on the note (promise to pay) of the borrower. 
Such a bank is formed by several persons joining 
together and paying in a smn of money to create the 
bank's "capital." This they lend to others, who 
may use it in buying tools or machinery. 

In addition to its capital, the bank receives de- 
posits from persons who have more money than they 
care to keep on hand. If a dozen men deposit a total 
of $50,000, the bank must be prepared, on demand, 
to pay back to each one of them the amount of his 
deposit. As a matter of fact, experience has shown 
that they wiU not aU come at once for their money, 
and that if the bank has ten or twelve thousand 
doUars on hand it will be enough to meet actual de- 
mands. The rest the bank lends. 

Perhaps a bank lends twenty thousand dollars to a 
man who is starting a new factory. As soon as the 
factory begins to sell its goods a new lot of deposits 
flow in from the factory and its employees. In this 
manner banks grow and become increasingly able to 
aid industry. They are of immense importance, too, 
in promoting thrift. 

QUESTIONS 

How is "capital" defined? What example can you give of primitive 
capital? What are some other examples of capital? What is wealth? 
Give examples of wealth that are not capital. What is property? 
What reasons can you give for respecting the right of property? 
How is capital produced? WTiy do men produce it? What has the 
right of property to do with the process? Why are patents granted 
on inventions? Why are copyrights granted on books and musical 
compositions? How has the use of capital promoted division of 



32 Loyal Citizenship • 

labor? Can you give an example? What effect has division of labor 
had on the position of the worker? What must the capitalist 
provide? From what is he repaid? What items must be included 
in the payment? What is interest? What is profit? How do we 
ordinarily speak of capital? What is a commercial bank? How 
does it aid industry? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Patents and copyrights; banks; and the various stages in the 
development of industry as outlined in such books as Ely and 
Wicker, Principles of Economics, are the best subjects for student 
reports. See list of references, last chapter. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

The organized class should take up the question of protecting 
school property, such as books, desks, chairs, walls, stairways, and 
playground apparatus. Such property is all capital — community 
capital — invested in education. Its preservation can be helped by 
class action. Rules, with penalties for breaking them, should be 
made by the class. Offenders should be tried and punished by the 
class or a committee. 

It would be very helpful at this point to have a local banker or 
merchant give a talk to the class on banking and its relation to 
capital and industry. 



CHAPTER FIVE 
Getting Capital: Thrift 

Thrift. To make the best use of time, strength, 
and money, that is thrift. A thrifty citizen is one 
who uses his income wisely. This usually means 
that he spends something less than his income and 
saves the difference. People through whose hands 
money slips easily are not so much generous as 
careless. When a real occasion for generosity comes 
they are likely to have nothing to be generous with. 
But going without all the comforts and pleasures of 
life is not thrift — that is waste of opportunity, and 
waste is the opposite of thrift. Thrift means wise 
spending as well as wise saving. % 

Thrift and capital. We usually think of thrift as 
a purely private virtue, but it is of the utmost impor- 
tance to the community. We have aheady seen how 
capital can be created or increased only by saving. 
Some saving is done by companies that set aside 
part of their revenue to replace worn-out capital and 
to extend their business. However, a very large part 
of the increase in capital must come from individual 
savings out of individual incomes, because command 
over most things that are produced passes quickly 
into individual hands in the form of interest, profit, 
and wages. Without new capital the prosperity of 
the community cannot increase. 

Thrift and the rainy day. We have seen that 
every one should work, bearing his part in produc- 
tion, but work alone will not certainly keep one from 
some day becoming a charge upon the community. 

33 



34 



Loyal Citizenship 



Saving for future needs seems a dreary performance 
to most young people. Full of health and vigor, they 
find it hard to realize that there will ever be a time 
when they cannot earn a living. Yet accident, ill- 
ness, old age, and death visit every family. Unem- 
ployment, whatever its cause, may stop any one's 
earnings. For these reasons thrifty persons seek to 
lay hy something for a ^^ rainy day.'' 

Savings banks: interest. It is principally 
through savings banks that the opportunity to secure 



$25,234,496,000. 



$2,712,500,000. 



$971,50 0,000. 




$[1,985,882,000. 



1916 1917 19)8 ISiS 



Fig. 19. The public debt of the United States as affected by war. 
At the end of the Great War the amount paid in interest each year 
was larger than the total debt in 1916. 



Getting Capital: Thrift 35 




Baltimore Public Schools 



Fig. 20. The work of this school savings bank is done by pupils se- 
lected through competition. Their accounts are checked by the prin- 
cipal and by the officers of the regular bank where the money of the 
school bank is kept. The pupils are paid interest on their deposits, 
which total many hundreds of dollars. 

interest on small savings is offered to people gener- 
ally. Savings banks receive deposits as small as one 
dollar, and they lend money on long-term notes, 
usually secured by real-estate mortages. They pay 
interest on deposits. This interest is usually com- 
pounded semiannually; that is, the interest is added 
to the principal, thus making a new principal on 
which interest is paid (Fig. 19). 

At four per cent interest, compounded semian- 
nually, a sum of money will double in seventeen 
years. If when you are fourteen years old you have 



36 Loyal Citizenship 

one hundred dollars in the bank and simply leave it 
there, you will have two hundred when you are 
thirty-one, four hundred when you are forty-eight, 
and eight hundred when you are sixty-five. The gain 
will be made without any effort on your part ; you 
will only have to leave the money in the bank. Inter- 
est is a good friend to have working for you. When 
you have saved a few hundred dollars, you can buy 
with it shares of stock in a business enterprise. Any 
hoy or girl can by thrift and with the help of a savings 
bank become an owner of capital (Fig. 20). 

The thrift stamps of the United States are a means 
of encouraging saving in small amounts. The postal 
savings banks of the government give perfect security 
for savings, and they pay a low rate of interest. 

Owning a home. Of all forms of permanent 
property that are used for our immediate comfort 
and enjoyment, the most important is a home. 
Family life cannot be enjoyed to the full unless there 
is a place for it. Even a humble dwelling that 
belongs to those whom it shelters may be a fitter 
place for a home than the finest rented house (Fig. 
21). When one owns the place where he lives, he 
takes a pleasure in beautifying it, in planting flowers 
and shrubs, and in caring for the lawn and the walks, 
that he could not otherwise take. 

Home-owning citizens are desirable citizens. When 
men come to own homes, they are more sober of judg- 
ment and less willing to consider destructive theories in 
government or economics, for they have property at 
stake. The ownership of a home gives a man a 



Getting Capital: Thrift 



37 




Fig. 21. Birthplace of John Howard Payne, author of "Home, 
Sweet Home," Easthampton, Long Island, New York. 



38 Loyal Citizenship 

definite place in the community in which he fives. 
Laying money aside to buy a home is one of the best 
forms of saving. 

A person can deposit money in a bank until he has 
enough to buy a home outright, or he can invest his 
savings in a building and loan association. When he 
builds or buys a home he can borrow money to pay 
for it from his own building and loan association and, 
in effect, pay some of the interest on the loan to him- 
self. He can, too, buy a house by making a cash 
payment of a few hundred doUars and paying the rest 
of the purchase in monthly installments. It costs a 
little more to buy a home on payments, but many 
people would never save enough to buy one outright 
for cash. The fact that they have to meet a payment 
every month makes saving compulsory. 

Insurance. For the great majority of persons even 
hard work and thrift together are not enough to 
assure independence under aU circumstances. Sick- 
ness and death strike when least expected. There 
was a father, for example, who died of typhoid fever, 
leaving two children aged five and two, a home partly 
paid for, and only a few doUars in the bank. The 
heavy biUs for his long iUness and the expense of bur- 
ial came just at the time when his earnings stopped. 
The result was, as is often the case, that the family 
had to be taken care of through charity. 

There is a better way of meeting misfortune than by 
depending upon charity, and that is by insurance. No 
one can foretell just when the head of any family 
will die. But a study of statistics of mortality will 



Getting Capital: Thrift 



39 




Fig. 22. "Chase Them Away," a newspaper cartoon by 
Harry Murphy. (Copyrighted, 1920, by the Star Com- 
pany. Reprinted by permission.) 

tell almost exactly how many men of a given age 
will die in a given length of time. It is possible, 
therefore, to tell just how much each man out of a 
hundred or a thousand must pay every year in order 
to create a fund big enough to pay a thousand 
dollars to the family of any one of the group who 
dies. By creating such a fund the risk of death 
is distributed among all who contribute. That is mutual 
insurance. There are also corporations that sell 



40 Loyal Citizenship 

policies or contracts of insurance for profit. The great 
old-line insurance companies are about equally di- 
vided between the two types. 

Besides the old-line insurance companies there are 
fraternal societies, whose chief purpose is to furnish 
insurance at a low cost to members. Insurance can 
he had to cover any of the risks of life, such as accident, 
illness, old age, or unemployment. 

Social insurance. Many people believe that taking 
out insurance should not be left to the voluntary 
action of individuals, but that certain forms of it, at 
least, should be compulsory. They further contend 
that a matter of such great social importance as 
providing insurance should be the care of the govern- 
ment, and that it should not be left to depend upon 
private business enterprise. 

Most of the countries of the world have adopted 
some form or other of social insurance to make pro- 
vision for working people against accident, illness, 
or old age. The cost of the insurance may be 
apportioned among the insured, his employer, and 
the government. 

A compulsory system of social insurance involves a 
limitation of liberty that only extreme necessity can 
justify. Forcing people into thrift cannot make 
them really thrifty. The adoption of social insurance 
in our country will be much discussed during the 
next few years. 



Getting Capital: Thrift 41 

QUESTIONS 

How do you distinguish thrift from stinginess; from miserliness? 
What part does thrift play in the creation of new capital? What is 
the social importance of sa\'ing for a "rainy day ' ' ? What is the func- 
tion of a sa\'ings bank? How does it differ from a commercial 
bank? Give an example of the earning power of money at compound 
interest. How is the interest on thrift stamps paid? What social 
value is there in having citizens own their own homes? How does 
home ownership benefit the indi\adual? How can you get a home 
on small savings? \Miat is the effect of misfortune on a workman's 
family? What is insurance? Explain how it works. What is social 
insurance? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Savings banks; building and loan associations; thrift stamps; 
postal sa\dngs banks; social insurance in the several countries of 
the world. These topics, except the last, can best be investigated 
through personal interviews with bankers, real-estate men, and 
postal officials. 

A student assigned to inter\^ewing a business man whom he may 
not know personedly, should go with a letter of introduction from 
the teacher, or the interview should be arranged for by correspon- 
dence begun by the student. The student should have well outlined 
in his mind the questions that he wishes to put, and immediately 
after the interview he should make notes of all that was said on the 
subject discussed. The inter\"iewer should remember that the time 
that a business man can spare from his work is very hmited and that 
he will appreciate b^e\^ty. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Found a thrift club among the members of the class. Have an 
officer of a local savings bank talk to the class about saving and let 
him suggest a plan to be used by the club. 



CHAPTER SIX 

The Function of Money 

Three terms that should be distinguished. In our 
previous discussions, especially of capital and thrift, 
we have repeatedly spoken of money, without con- 
cerning ourselves about what money really is. We 
speak of the prices of desired articles in dollars and 
cents, and we compare the values of merchandise 
offered at different stores. But ordinarily we do 
not make clear distinctions between the terms 
"value" and "money" and "prices." It is impor- 
tant, nevertheless, that we should do so. 

Value. When a primitive man wanted a pair of 
skin shoes, he might have made them himself, or he 
might have exchanged for them something that he 
already possessed. The big question for him, as for 
us under similar circumstances, was what he should 
have to give for them. This would have depended on 
the supply of shoes and on the need for the articles he 
was prepared to offer in exchange. If there were not 
enough shoes for the feet of the village, he would have 
had to give more for them than if shoes were plenty. 
If he had spears to offer and these were rare and 
much desired, he could have got more for them 
than if a dozen of the kind leaned against the door 
of every hut. This would have been true regardless 
of the fact that it may have taken more labor 
to make shoes than spears, or that one of these 
articles may have been essentially more useful than 
the other. 

The worth of one commodity expressed in terms of 

42 



The Function of Money 



43 



another commodity is value. The value of any article 
is determined by the demand for it and the supply 
of it. We cannot understand fully the working of 
this rule until we have learned something of the 
function of money in exchange. 

Money. Every one is famiUar with the commoner 
forms of money. There are gold, silver, nickel alloy, 
and bronze coins; and besides these we have bills, 
which are as readily accepted as coins. The coins 
all bear the stamp of the United States and are 
made at its mints. Gold is the basis of our whole 
system of currency, and the value of all forms of 
money is expressed in terms of standard gpld. The 
best way to get information about our different 




U. S. Geological Survey 

Fig. 23. Placer mining near Nome, Alaska, Gold represents labor. 
The world's stock of gold has been secured at a vast expenditure of 
capital, labor, and life. 



44 Loyal Citizenship 

issues of paper money is to read carefully the matter 
printed on the bills themselves. There are three 
kinds of notes issued by the United States: (1) gold 
certificates and (2) silver certificates, each of which 
bears evidence that the United States has in its vaults 
a given amount of gold or silver that it will exchange 
for the note; (3) Treasury notes, which are simply 
the promises of the United States to pay to bearer 
stated amounts of money. These forms of notes are 
declared, like gold and silver coins, to be legal tender; 
that is, the law requires that they be received at their 
face value when tendered in payment of any debt 
between individuals. Bank notes, which people 
seldom take the trouble to distinguish from legal- 
tender notes, are issued, under very strict govern- 
ment control, by National and Federal Reserve banks. 
They are the promises of the banks to pay the 
amounts printed on them. 

Money a medium of exchange. If a savage had a 
spear that he wished to part with for a pair of shoes, 
he had first to hunt up a man with shoes to spaie. 
This might well have caused him a good deal of 
bother, and when he found a man with shoes, that 
man might not have wanted a spear at all. If, how- 
ever, the man with the spear could have exchanged 
it for some article that other people generally were 
wiUing to take in exchange for their possessions, it 
would surely have been good business for him to do 
so. In fact, that is what he did ; and some generally 
accepted article or articles early became the medium 
through which exchanges were made. 



The Function of Money 



45 





Fig. 24. Wampum and cowrie shells, bars of salt^ cattle, and 
weights of metal have served as currency. Cowrie shells are stiU used 
as money in parts of Africa and Asia, 

There have been many such acceptable articles 
or forms of money. The North American Indians 
used strings or belts of wampum — purple and >yhite 
pieces of shells, made into holloAY, pohshed cyhnders. 
Among the early settlers in this country, beaver skins 
and tobacco, as aycII as wampmn, often served as 
money. We are told that the people of Sparta, in 
ancient Greece, used iron as money; and the Ro- 
mans at first used large weights of copper as cur- 
rency. Gold and silver, however, were more con- 
venient to handle than the baser metals, as a small 
amount of them had a much larger purchasing power. 
Therefore, in time, they displaced all other metals as 
standard money. Finally, gold alone came to be 
the standard money everywhere except in China and 
India and a few other places. 



46 Loyal Citizenship 

Our silver, nickel alloy, and bronze coins are only 
tokens useful in making change. Like our paper 
currency, they represent values fixed in gold. When 
paper currency is not readily exchangeable for gold, its 
value falls at once. That is why the paper currency 
of many European countries has such a low exchange 
value in comparison with United States money. 

Checks as money. Depositors in banks generally 
have checking accounts. Instead of withdrawing 
actual money from banks and paying all their bills in 
currency, they simply give their checks. This prac- 
tice is very convenient and has increased rapidly in 
the last twenty years. When the manufacturer men- 
tioned in the chapter on "Capital" got a loan of 
$20,000, he did not receive $20,000 in coin or paper 
money. He received merely a credit to that amount 
on the books of the bank. Against this credit he 
drew his checks to pay for machinery, coal, electric 
current, water, raw materials, and wages. These 
checks, after some circulation perhaps, were depos- 
ited in banks (Fig. 25). 



pr- 



WestchesterTrust Company so 53 



• THIS CHECK IS »VAB1.E THBOUSH ANV MEMBER (JfTKCN 




1"D0XJ..ARS 

EW yORK CtEABING HOUSE WITHOUT CHARGE FOR EXCHANGE | 



Fig. 25. A bank check. By writing his name on the back of this 
check, the man to whose order it is drawn can make it payable to 
another person. 



The Function of Money 



47 




Fig. 26. The clearing house for the banks of a great city. Each 
bank's representative has brought the outside checks that his bank 
has taken. He will exchange these for checks drawn on his bank. 

If a check was deposited in the bank on which it 
was drawn, all that happened was that one man's 
account was charged and the other man's account 
was credited with the amount of the check. The 
medium of exchange in that transaction was hank 
credit represented by a check. If the coal dealer, for 
example, deposited his check with another bank than 
the one on which it was drawn, the result would not 
have been very different. A clerk from the coal 
dealer's bank would simply have taken the check to 
the clearing house along with the rest of the checks on 
other banks received during one business day. At a 
clearing house the clerks of all the banks of a city 
bring together "outside checks." They then ex- 



48 Loyal Citizenship 

change checks with one another, and only small 
balances are settled in cash. The quantity of medium 
of exchange is thus very much enlarged by the use of 
bank credits represented by checks (Fig. 26). 

Prices. The value of anything expressed in money 
— ^what you have to pay to get it — is called its price. 
Money is therefore a measure of value as well as a 
medium of exchange. If you shorten a measuring 
stick, the stick will have to be laid down more times 
to cover a given distance. If the value of the doUar 
is reduced, more dollars will be required to make any 
purchase, and we say that prices rise. An increase in 
the supply of money lowers its value and raises prices' 
just as an increase in the supply of spears, among 
primitive men, would have lowered the barter value 
of spears. 

The high prices in this country following our en- 
trance into the Great War were largely due to the 
issuance of vast quantities of Federal Reserve notes 
and to an enormous expansion of bank credits, which, 
as we have seen, often take the place of money. All 
together, the result was to reduce the value of money 
about one half — in effect, to double prices. In Ger- 
many so much paper money was issued that it took 
fourteen marks to buy what one mark had bought 
before the war. There is great temptation for a gov- 
ernment when hard pressed for money to issue a 
billion doUars or so in printed currency, declare it 
legal tender, and pay it out to its creditors. There 
can, nevertheless, be no escape from the rule that the 
more money there is the less it is worth. The gold 



The Function of Money 




Interhorough Rapid Transit Company 

Fig. 27. "The Shrunken Nickel." WTiere 64 nickels would buy a 
ton of coal before America entered the war, they would buy only half 
a ton in 1919. 



produced each year is so little in comparison with 
that already in existence that gold is by far the steadi- 
est measure of value. 



QUESTIONS 

What is value? How is it determined? Give an example. \Miat 
different kinds of United States money are there? \Miat is meant 
by the expression, "Money is a medium of exchange"? Why is 
such a medium necessary? Mention some things that have been 
used as money. Why has gold become the universal money? In 
what sense are checks money? ^Miat effect has their use had on 
the quantity of money? Explain the statement, "INIoney is a 
measure of value." ^^^lat are "prices"? What relation has the 
quantity of money to value and prices? Give examples. Why is 
gold such a steady measure of value .►* 



50 Loyal Citizenship 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Money in colonial times; Continental currency; Confederate 
paper money. Prices after the Civil War. The demand for the 
free coinage of silver as expressed in the presidential campaign of 
1896. Prices in European countries during and after the Great 
War. The prevailing exchange rates for pounds, francs, marks, lire, 
expressed in terms of our currency. It is not to be expected that 
some of these topics can be more than touched upon. 

The best work for reference on money is Bullock, C. J., Monetary 
History of the United States. See also general works on Economics 
previously referred to, and Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of 
American Government, Chapter 34. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Have the class, with the help of mothers and fathers, compile and 
put on the blackboard a table showing about what were the retail 
prices of common articles of home use fifteen years ago, and what 
they are today. 



CHAPTER SEVEN 
Demand, Supply, and Competition 

Demand. We have noted that the value of any 
article, including money, is determined by the de- 
mand for it and the supply of it. It wiU repay us 
to consider more carefully how this principle works 
out. The first few hundred boxes of great "Black 
Tartarian" cherries hurried by express from a 
California orchard to the New York market brings a 
fancy price, for the demand is far greater than the 
supply. As the season progresses and larger and 
larger shipments arrive, the commission merchants 
have to lower the price to move the piles of boxes 
from their warehouses. A few people, who have the 
means, will buy the earliest and highest-priced 
cherries; but most of us, before buying, have to 
consider carefully whether other things will not be 
more useful to us than cherries. 

There is a limited demand for cherries at a dollar a 
pound, and there is a very great demand for them at ten 
cents a pound. The ten-cent price will usually pre- 
vail when it becomes necessary to make that low 
price in order to sell enough cherries to dispose of 
the stock on hand. Then all purchasers will pay 
ten cents, including those who might be willing, if 
cherries were scarce, to pay one dollar (Fig. 28). 

Where a reduction of a few cents in the price of an 
article will vastly increase its consumption or a rise 
of a few cents correspondingly decrease it, the de- 
mand for that article is said to be elastic. Where 
great fluctuations in price are met by only sHght 

51 



52 



Loyal Citizenship 



changes in demand, the demand is said to be inelastic. 
The demand for luxuries — CaUfornia cherries, for 




M Ml M^ 



Fig. 28. The curve of demand 
(the line DD) . If cherries sell at 
MN cents a box, OM boxes will 
be sold — not a large number. If 
they sell at MiNi cents, a lower 
price, more boxes, OMi, will be 
sold. If they sell at M2N2, a still 
lower price, a still greater num- 
ber of boxes (M2N2) will be sold. 
The demand may be expected to 
extend as the price decreases. 



Fig. 29. The curve of supply 
(the line SS). If the price of an 
article, as milk, is MN, the num- 
ber of quarts that the producers 
will sell to distributors will be 
represented by the hne OM. 
If the price is increased to MiNi, 
the producers will seU more milk 
and the quarts sold will be rep- 
resented by OMi. If the price 
is increased to M2N2, the pro- 
ducers will seU a total number of 
quarts represented by the line 
M2N2. Ordinarily, the supply 
wiU be extended as the price is 
increased. 



example — is very elastic. The demand for neces- 
saries is inelastic. We need bread so regularly and 
so much that we will pay what we must to get it. 

Supply. When men cultivated the soil by scratch- 
ing it with sharp sticks, they received a small return 
from it. As they apphed better tools and came to 
work more steadily, the land responded and brought 
forth more abundantly. There comes a time, how- 
ever, when a farmer who has been getting about 
twenty bushels of wheat to the acre finds that it will 



Demand, Supply, and Competition 53 

take as much labor and capital to increase the yield 
by ten bushels as it did to produce the original 
twenty. This illustrates what is known as the law 
of diminishing returns. It apphes not only to agri- 
culture but also to the production of such things as 
coal, iron, and oil, which come out of the ground. 
Unless there are new discoveries or inventions, the 
supply of those things which come directly from the 
earth, within a given producing area, can be in- 
creased only at an increasing cost for each unit of 
production (the bushel of wheat or ton of coal will 
be more costly). 

On the other hand, most manufactuj;ed articles 
obey a contrary^ law, that of increasing returns. To 
make one chair by hand is an expensive job. It 
costs much less, for each chair, to make many hun- 
dreds of chairs in a factory. The more chairs a fac- 
tory makes, the cheaper it should be able to sell them, 
up to the point where the business becomes unwieldy. 
In the case, then, of manufactured articles it is gener- 
ally true that production on a greater scale lowers the 
cost for each unit of production. The lower the cost, 
the lower may be the seUing price ; and the lower the 
selling price (under normal conditions), the greater 
the demand. 

Monopoly. Good stone arrowheads were made 
chiefly from flint, and the most suitable flint was to 
be found only within limited areas. Suppose that a 
wandering savage stumbled on the first supply of 
this stone in the experience of his tribe and that he 
kept its location a secret. He alone could supply 



54 Loyal Citizenship 

arrowheads of the most desired material. He would 
have a monopoly of their production and could fix 
the barter price to suit himself. If he fixed it very 
high, he could sell only a few of them. If he fixed it 
low enough he could sell to every hunter in the tribe. 
He would, if shrewd enough, fix the barter price at 
the point where the price multiplied by the number of 
sales would give him the largest return in wampum or 
food or such articles as shoes. That point would be 
determined according to whether the arrowhead-making 
industry obeyed the law of diminishing or of increasing 
returns and whether the demand was elastic or inelastic. 

If there was only a little of the desired flint in sight 
and more could be obtained only by tireless searching, 
the man with the flint monopoly would fix the barter 
price high, because the law of diminishing returns 
would apply to his enterprise. If the flint was plenti- 
ful and his skill in making grew with practice, he 
would probably fix the price low, because the law of 
increasing returns would apply. 

If the arrowheads of this particular flint were 
necessary to a hunter's success and on that success 
depended the food of the hunter and his family, the 
man with the flint monopoly could get a much higher 
price (the demand being inelastic) than if there were 
good substitutes for his arrowheads or if there were 
abundant supplies of other foods than game (the 
demand for the arrowheads being elastic). 

The same principles operate in the case of a mod- 
ern monopoly. Monopolies are most dangerous when 
they control a necessity or near necessity of life, the 



Demand, Supply, and Competition 55 

production of which obeys the Iscw of diminishing 
returns. 

Competition. Now let us suppose that the whole 
tribe knew Avhere to find an abundant supply of 
the favored stone. Every tribesman skilled in 
chipping flint would be free to use this material. 
He would offer his product in competition with the 
work of all the rest. Each would try his best to 
make better arrowheads than his competitors. The 
price would be determined by the free operation of 
the laws of supply and demand. In the long run, each 
man would be wiUing to take a barter price that 
would repay him for the trouble of getting the flint, 
for his labor in fashioning the arrowheads, and for 
the labor and saving represented by the rude imple- 
ments in his workshop. In modern industry these 
price factors would correspond to the value of raw 
materials, the wages of labor, and interest on the 
capital invested. Taken together, they constitute 
the cost of production of any commodity. If the 
price of any article rises much above this level, new 
capital and labor will be put to work at producing 
it because of the prospect of profit. Thus the supply 
will be increased and the price lowered. If, however, 
the price falls much below the cost of production, 
labor and capital will go into other channels until 
the supply has been decreased and the price raised 
(Fig. 29). _ 

Competition, within reasonable limits, makes for 
good service and for well-made goods, ^\llerever it 
exists, it is an automatic regulator of prices. "Cut- 



56 Loyal Citizenship 

throat competition," however, never results in 
permanent advantage to consumers. The waste and 
loss involved in such competition must in the end 
fall upon consumers. Often such competition has 
paved the way for monopoly, as when producers 
have entered into combines to escape ruinous com- 
petition among themselves (in spite of laws designed 
to prevent them from doing so). 

Wages and labor. When a worker using his own 
tools and materials makes or finishes a usable article, 
he pays himself for his labor by using the article or 
by selhng it. But in these days of modern industry, 
with its minute division of labor and its large use of 
machinery, few men work with materials and tools 
of their own and turn out a completed article. Each 
man does a bit towards production, as in the case of 
the woolen suit. The Wyoming sheep herder and the 
Massachusetts spinner are paid out of the price of 
the suit, but this is done very indirectly. If each of 
them had to wait for the long process of production 
to be completed before he got his share of the product, 
he would starve. Employers — capitahsts — besides 
providing the outfit and sheep in the case of the 
herder, and machinery and wool in the case of the 
spinner, advance out of their capital weekly or 
monthly money payments to the workers. Such 
advances are called wages. In some form or other 
every worker of whatever grade receives wages. 

Wages, under natural conditions, are determined by 
the supply of and demand for labor. In this respect 
labor is a commodity hke cotton, wool, or iron. It 



Demand, Supply, and Competition 57 




Library of Congress 

Fig. 30. "Labor," a painting by Charles Sprague TPearce. The 
reward of such workers was meager. 



differs from other commodities, however, in that 
the laborer is indivisibly united to his labor. We 
cannot safely disregard this factor or treat human 
labor as if it were a thing merely to be bought as 
cheaply as the law of supply and demand will allow. 
Wages can not long remain either less than will enable 
the worker to live, or more than the value which his 
labor adds to the thing on which he works. 

In this country there has been a great advance 
in the standard of living during the last century. 
Real wages (wages measured by what they will buy) 
have increased greatly, and the general welfare 
of workers has been permanently raised. If labor 
were to be regarded merely as a commodity, this 
would be a misfortune to every user of labor or of 
the things that labor makes. But a general im- 



58 



Loyal Citizenship 




U. S. Bureau of Farm Management 

Fig. 31. Reaping and binding wheat with modern farm machinery. 
The reward of these men is vastly more than was that of primitive 
agricultural workers. 

provement in the condition of most people cannot 
be regarded as a misfortune. With better food, 
better hving conditions, and better education, work- 
ers have become, on the whole, more efficient than 
before. 

Rent. Where a family does not own its home, it 
pays "rent" for the house or apartment in which it 
lives. Part of this payment, of course, represents 
interest on the capital invested in the building. The 
rest is for the use of the land on which the building 
stands. For our present purposes only the part paid 
for the use of the land is properly termed rent Rent 
is what is paid for the use of land or other natural 
resources such as water power. If there are two farms 
of the same size, equally distant from a good market, 



Demand, Supply, and Competition 59 

but one of them having a rich, well-watered soil, the 
other having a thin, stony soil, subject to drought, 
you certainly would prefer the first one. If with 
equal expenditure of labor the first farm would 
produce $3,000 worth of grain, and the second but 
$1,500 worth, you could pay any amount less than 
$1,500 as rent for the first farm and stiU make more 
money than on the second, rent free. There are 
always some farms that just repay the labor and 
capital which are used in cultivating them, leaving 
nothing for rent. The difference between what such a 
farm will yield and what a better farm will yield is the 
thing your rent pays for. If you own your farm, 
you still enjoy this advantage; but you paid the 
rent all at once in the purchase price. 

Some people argue that rent is an unfair reward 
for mere good fortune in getting a favorable site, 
and that rent ought to be taken away from those 
who receive it, by a tax — ''the single tax.'' Most 
people who own land that produces a high rent, 
however, have bought that land at a high price. 
We may say that by so doing they have paid the 
rent in advance. To them the single tax would be 
extremely unjust. 

QUESTIONS 

How does lowering the price of a commodity ajffect the demand for 
it? What is meant by elastic demand; inelastic demand? For what 
classes of commodities is demand elastic? Give examples. For 
what classes is it inelastic? Give examples. What is the law of 
diminishing retm-ns? To what sources of production does it apply? 
What is the law of increasing returns? Where does it apply? What 
is monopoly? Give examples of monopoly. What considerations 



60 Loyal Citizenship 

govern a monopolist in fixing the price of his commodity? In what 
circumstances will he fix it at a relatively low point? When are 
monopolies most dangerous to the public welfare? How will prices 
be determined if competition exists? What has the cost of produc- 
tion to do with prices under competitive conditions? Why? How 
is labor now paid? Why is this necessary? In what respects is 
labor like other commodities? In what respects is it different? Can 
we afford to neglect these points of difference? What are the bottom 
and top limits of wages, in the long run? Is improvement in the 
prevailing standard of living a good thing? Why? In what sense 
is the word "rent" used in this chapter? What is the reason for 
differences in rent? By what kind of sites is the rent of all other 
sites measured? Who gets the rent if you own the land you use? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Construct the demand curve for any commodity in the local 
market, such as strawberries, green corn, and potatoes. Students 
will need the aid of their parents or of local dealers in securing data 
for constructing this curve. See which pupil can bring in the longest 
list of articles that are sold under conditions approaching monopoly. 
Wages in your city and the single tax will be interesting topics. 
See general works previously mentioned. On the single tax see 
FiLLEBROWN, C. B., The A, B, C of Taxation, who favors it, and 
Plehn, C. C, Introduction to Public Finance, who opposes it. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Have the city or county assessor or some other qualified person 
talk to the class on land values (which are usually proportionate to 
rents) and the reasons for differences in values. 



PART TWO 
THE FUNDAMENTALS OF CITIZENSHIP 

Liberty and Democracy 



It is a capital error to fail to recognize 
the vital need of good laws. It is also 
a capital error to believe that good laws 
will accomplish anything unless the aver- 
age man has the right stuff in him. 

Theodore Roosevelt 



CHAPTER EIGHT 

The Privileges of Citizenship 

American liberty. We have seen that two princi- 
ples — ^liberty and cooperation — are at the basis of 
human happiness. Like the two chief parts of a ma- 
chine, they must be nicely adjusted to one another. 
If there be too much of one, there cannot be enough 
of the other. This country of ours was estabhshed 
on a higher ideal of freedom than the world had 
known before. The Declaration of Independence 
stated that "governments were instituted among 
men" to secure certain "inalienable rights," among 
which were "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happi- 
ness." Thus the principles of our county were de- 
clared at its birth, and to those principles it has 
remained true (Figs. 32 and 33). The United States 
assures each of its citizens all the freedom that he can 
enjoy without interfering with some one else's freedom. 
Of course, conduct that breaks down the coopera- 
tion of our citizens for common ends or which con- 
flicts with the general weKare cannot be justified in 
the name of liberty. 

Citizenship. Children born in the United States, 
of American parents, are by reason of that fact citi- 
zens. So are children born of foreign parents, 
unless when they reach the age of twenty-one they 
choose to retain the nationahty of their parents. 
Any white foreigner (or person of African descent) 
can be naturalized after five years of residence, if he 
can estabhsh that he is of good moral character and 
understands our system of government. In most 

63 



64 



Loyal Citizenship 





■«r» 





Fig. 32, A beach patrol of the Coast Guard Life-Saving Service. 
Directly and indirectly, our country constantly protects the lives, 
liberty, and property of its citizens. 

evening schools there are naturalization classes in 
which those who have declared their intention to 
become citizens — ^who have "taken out their first 
papers" — are prepared for citizenship. Except for 
the right of participating in the government, most of 
the benefits of citizenship are enjoyed by every 
resident of our country. 

Protection from foreign enemies. The United 
States defends its citizens and their possessions from 
foreign enemies. In this respect it does not differ 



The Privileges of Citizenship 



65 



from other countries ; but in making it effective, the 
United States has been successful above most nations. 
We should not cease to be grateful for the security 
which we enjoy. 

Protection from internal disorder. Our country 
also preserves peace and order within its borders. It 
protects our hves and property from the violence 
or treachery of the criminally disposed elements in 
the population. Through courts, judges, and pohce 
and miUtary forces it assures that safety without 
which there can be no real hberty. 

Protection of personal liberty . Our country not 
only protects us against other people. B^' provisions 
of the Constitution of the United States, and by 
similar provisions in the constitution of the states, it 
protects the individual against possible tyranny by 
government itself. This is what makes American 
freedom so secure and so precious to us all. 



DANGERS TO NAVIGATION 

(Reported by Hydrographic Office) 

April 9— Lat. 40.40 Ion. 46. 37, a derelict 
three-masted schooner on fire and abandoned ; 
crew rescued. 

March 29— Lat. 46.22 Ion. 30.14, a derehct 
about 100 feet long and awash. 

April 9 — Lat. 42.17 Ion. 49.29, an iceberg 
400 feet long and 45 feet high. 

April 10 — Lat. 44.32 Ion. 48.10, in between 
two bergs and ten growlers in a Kne, north 
and south, and 4 miles distant on each side of 
the ship. 



Fig. 33. Such information, which helps to prevent 
loss of life and property at sea, is regularly supphed 
to the newspapers of seaport towns by the hydro- 
graphic office of the Navy Department. 



66 



Loyal Citizenship 



The first ten amendments to the Constitution of 
the United States are known as our Bill of Rights. 
These amendments and several clauses in the Con- 
stitution as originally ratified specify the safeguards 
of individual liberty. Some of these are, in effect, as 
follows : 

(a) Freedom of speech, press, and worship. All 
citizens are assured the freedom to worship God in 
their own way, to speak or print their opinions, and 
peaceably to meet for the discussion of pubhc ques- 
tions. Freedom of worship is an inestimable blessing 
which a century ago belonged to the people of only a 
few countries. Freedom in speaking and publishing 
are necessary to real government by the people of a 
country (Fig. 34). 




Fig. 34. Free speech on Boston Common. Without free speech there 
can be no free government. 



The Privileges of Citizenship 67 

WRIT OF HABEAS CORPUS- lM-lM5-m 






THE PEOPLE OF THE STATE OF ILLINOIS 
Peoria County 

TO--..Jafflfl8..BseA1^^..5beTifir.P_f._?.op.ri_a.Cpitm.ty^.Iinp.ol8, .. QREETINQ: 

You are hereby commanded to haie the body o/..,.HiUlaia.Il..ilcJClUgage^ 

by you irt^nisoned and detained, as it is said, together uiih the time and cause of such imprisonment and detention, 

by u.-hatsoever name the said WllHam Ti. Mp.r.liigagp, 

shall be called or charged, before the Circuil Court of said Peorm County, at the Court House in Peoria, in said Counr^, 

— on-Ihuraday.-JfiTiiinry.-ath A. .Q., 1921,.Al.-10-o-'-cIoc3c-XJt>^ ,— 

immedialdy afur being served unth this writ, to be dealt uykyiccordxng to law: And have you then jand there this 
u^ ■^thereon of your doings m the premises JL/^ ^ 

WITNESS .. ^jZ^O-^i^rf^.^rr^-r-^^l^^^^ 

ClerV of said Circuit Court, and the Seal thereof, at Peona, this 

//..My of A. D. 192 

r !^^4^<3i<7*^-^...fe<:^^;?^c<^^^ 

" By , Deputy 

75..Renry..7...iQfgren^-Cort3ner., to d^Iuer 

-^■^^^^^^'-'^^1 '^ — " -- ■ - ■ ■ vinrv^nrv- » ■ ■■!■■»» m ■ « ■ ■ f ■ M— < I 



Fig. 35. A writ of habeas corpus. Except for such a writ, a person 
confined in an asylum or jail might be held indefinitely without just 
cause. 

(6) Security of property. No man may be arbi- 
trarily deprived of his property. He always has a 
chance to defend his rights in court. Even if the 
government takes property for necessary public 
purposes, it must pay what the property is worth 
as determined by a jury. 

(c) Trial by jury. One accused of crime is entitled 
to trial by a jury of twelve of his fellow citizens, 
chosen by lot. 

(d) Habeas corpus. No man can be held long in 
prison without trial. His friends can secure from a 
judge an order known as a writ of habeas corpus 
which obhges his jailer to produce him in court. If 



68 Loyal Citizenship 

he is being improperly held, the judge will order his 
release (Fig. 35). 

(e) Other safeguards. No excessive bail may be 
demanded or cruel and unusual punishment imposed. 
Even officers of the government may not search 
one's house without a warrant. 

The crowning privilege of citizenship. We have 
enumerated a few of the advantages of living under 
the flag of the United States, which are extended even 
to foreign residents. We have yet to mention the 
crowning privilege of citizenship — a privilege which 
only citizens twenty-one years of age or over can 
exercise — the right to vote. The fact that those who 
make and carry out our laws hold their places by the 
will of the people assures our freedom. The idea of 
the importance of the ballot is well expressed in a 
stanza by John Greenleaf Whittier : 

Not lightly fall 

Beyond recall 
The written scrolls a breath can float; 

The crowning fact, 

The kinghest act, 
Of Freedom is the freeman's vote. 

QUESTIONS 
What is the announced pm-pose of om* government? Who can be 
citizens of the United States? Why do we take the privileges of 
citizens for granted? What does om* country do to protect us from 
foreign enemies? from internal disorder? How are we protected 
against governmental tyranny? What hmitations may there be 
on the rights of pubhc assembly and freedom of speech and of the 
press? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Naturalization (see Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American 
Government, pages 50, 104, 106, 297). A day's record of the police 



The Privileges of Citizenship 69 

in protecting the public, as shown by the station blotter. The 
Declaration of Independence; the Bill of Rights of the Constitution 
of the United States; the Bill of Rights of your state; Magna 
Charta; the EngHsh Bill of Rights of 1689. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

I^t different members of a committee of pupils inte^^^ew a lawyer, 
a newspaper reporter, a clerg^Tnan, a teacher, and a business man, 
and ask: "Should anarchists be allowed freedom of speech when 
they preach their doctrine in public places?" Compare answers in 
class; discuss and debate. 



CHAPTER NINE 

The Duties of Citizenship 

Our republic : its ruler ship. Democracy is a word 
from the Greek which means "the people rule." We 
use the term to designate a government such as our 
own, in which laws are made and enforced by repre- 
sentatives chosen by the people. Every native-born 
American upon reaching the age of twenty-one is 
called upon to take a direct part in the government 
of the country and whichever of its subdivisions he 
happens to reside in. So is every naturalized citizen. 
It is because all must participate in the government 
of our country that it is especially important for each 
of us to have accurate ideas about its Constitution 
and to know its problems. 

Autocracies. In the governments of Russia, Ger- 
many, and Austria, as organized before the war, the 
real authority rested in an Emperor — the autocrat 
— or in the small group that surrounded and often 
controlled him. While elected representatives of the 
people had some share in the government, it was 
a very small one, and the ordinary citizen was ex- 
pected to do little more than obey the orders of his 
superiors. Even in Germany, where aU boys • and 
girls went to school, they were trained rather to 
serve their country under the direction of others than 
to help govern it. Such countries are called auto- 
cratic monarchies or merely autocracies. 

Other democracies. There are several great de- 
mocracies besides our own. These include France, 
Great Rritain, and Italy. In Great Britain and 

70 



The Duties of Citizenship' 



71 




Fig. 36. President Harding paying a quarter for admission to the 
public golf links at Washington, D. C. Our President is, after all, 
one of the people and must submit to the laws and regulations which 
apply to other citizens. 

Italy the head of the goverrnnent is a king, who is 
not an actual ruler. Such governments are called 
constitutional or limited monarchies. In them the 
real power lies in the representatives of the people, and 
they are in many respects as democratic as is the 
government of the United States. France, like the 
United States, has at the head of its government an 
elected officer, the President. Such governments 
are called republics. 

Responsibility of the individual citizen. Each 
American citizen should have a sense of personal 
responsibility for the welfare of his country. But 
too often he feels that his duties are shared by so 
many others that he need not concern himself about 



72 Loyal Citizenship 

them. It is clear, however, that if every one said, 
" I do not need to fulfill my duty as a citizen because 
others will," no one would ever fulfill his duty. 
The duties of the citizen and voter are: First, to 
obey the law and the lawful commands of those in 
authority; second, to act wisely and under standingly 
in the election of other citizens to represent him in the 
conduct of the government; and third, to stand ready 
to defend his country with his life (Fig. 37). 

The increasing complexity of government. There 
was a time when government concerned itself about 
little more than furnishing protection against foreign 
enemies and maintaining peace within its territories. 
The needs as well as the duties of the citizen were 
then comparatively simple. But as civilization has 
become more complex the individual has become 
more and more dependent on government for ser- 
vices that are vital to him. For example, take the 
case of water. If you live in the country and have 
your own well, you can, perhaps, take measures that 
will protect you against impurities in the water. If, 
however, water comes to you and thousands of others 
through miles of pipe from a source you never saw, 
you will be quite unable to keep your water supply 
free from contamination or to determine whether or 
not it contains germs such as those of typhoid fever. 
In like manner you will be unable to determine the 
true contents of the bottle of milk that is left at your 
door each morning, or of the can of goods from the 
grocer's. To protect you in such matters, inspectors 
are employed by the government. The wider its ser- 



The Duties of Citizenship 



73 




Metropolitan Museum of Art 

Fig. 37. The supreme sen^ice of loyal citizenship. "Carry On," a 
celebrated poster by Edwin Blashfield, 



vices, the more highly government must be organized 
and the more intelligently it needs to be managed. The 
citizen must keep himself well informed in order that 
he may do his duty as a voter. 



74 Loyal Citizenship 



You are now entering the Palisades Interstate Park. It is a 
Public Park, extending at this point from the river's edge to 
the top of the cliffs in a northerly and southerly direction for a 
distance of twelve and a half miles. 

The trees and shrubbery in this Park are of priceless value to the 
public. They must be preserved. We ask you to refrain from 
picking autumn leaves or branches. We know how much you 
enjoy them but if you pick them today, you will deprive others 
of the pleasure of seeing them tomorrow and you will disfigure 
the Park. 

Will you please follow these suggestions as to your own 
action and where you see others picking leaves or breaking 
branches be good enough to use your influence in persuading 
them not to do so? 

Your cooperation will be appreciated. 



Fig. 38. An effective printed appeal to the cooperative spirit of 
visitors to a great park. No loyal citizen would disregard it. 

Loyalty. We can sum up all of the citizen's duties 
in the one word loyalty. If you want a reason for 
being loyal, you can find one in this fact : that yom* 
country can give you opportunities for freedom and 
cooperation only through good government, which 
depends upon the loyalty of citizens. It is to your 
interest to be loyal. It is also to the interest of your 
fellow citizens that you, as well as they, should be 
loyal, in order to secure for all the benefits of a well- 
governed country; but after all, loyalty to one's 
country is something more than loyalty to one's own 
interests, or even to the interests of his fellow citi- 
zens. Your country's ideals and the blood that has 
been shed to achieve them have given it a personality 
which is worthy of the deepest devotion. 

QUESTIONS 

What is democracy? What is an autocracy? Give examples. 
What is a limited monarchy? Give examples, What is a republic? 



The Duties of Citizenship 75 

Name ten important republics. What are three extremely impor- 
tant duties of citizenship? Give as many examples as you can of the 
services rendered by government. What reasons can you give 
for being loyal .-^ 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

This is a good place to begin the study of comparative government 
by assigning as topics for report the governments of countries men- 
tioned in the text. Comparisons might well be made between the 
governments of France and the United States and of France and 
Great Britain. Some possible sources of information are Wilson, 
WooDROW, The State (Revised Edition, 1918); Ogg, F. A., The 
Governments of Europe; Sait, E. M., Government and Politics of 
France; Kruger, F. K., Government and Politics of the German 
Empire (old system); Brooks, R, C., Government and Politics of 
Switzerland; Dodd, W. E., Modern Constitutions (contains the con- 
stitutions of all the principal countries of the world aown to 1909). 
Any good encyclopedia will be very useful, as will files of Review of 
Reviews, Literary Digest, and Current History. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Have a loyalty hour, with a patriotic program by the class. 
Include the reading of a portion of the Declaration of Independence, 
and let several examples of loyalty to home, school, or country be 
reported by members of the class. One of the best examples — of 
devotion to humanity — was the act of several members of the 
United States Public Health Service who allowed themselves to be 
bitten by Stegomyia mosquitoes in order to determine whether or 
not they were the carriers of yellow fever. Dr. Jesse Lazear died as 
a result of this experiment. 



CHAPTEP TEX 

Elections 

The ballot box. The central device in our repub- 
lic consists of a ver\' large number of boxes of many 
shapes and sizes, in which our citizens place their 
ballots at election time. Our government can never 
be any better than the votes recorded on the ballots 
which go into these boxes: its wisdom cannot be 
greater than the wisdom of its citizens as expressed 
at the polls. Our represeniatires can neter he any 
better than we, the people, choose iheni to be. Since 
government ia the United States is carried on almost 
altogether by representatives, our chief business as 
citizens is to select them. 

Who may vote. In order to vote at a national 
election, one must be a citizen of the United States, 
at least twentv-one vears of a^re. In some states the 
voter must pass a very simple educational test; in 




Fig. 39. The baOot box — a symbol oi the rule of the people. 

76 



Elections 



77 




Fig. 40. An election scene. Secret voting represents a gi- ^vance 
over the ancient method of election by the shouts of the people. 

others the paAinent of a poll tax is required. It is 
also generally necessary to have registered one's name 
as a voter at some time preceding the election, and to 
have resided thirty days in the precinct, from three 
to six months in the county, and a year in the state. 
Polling places and election officers. There must 
be a poRing place for ever\' fe>y hundred voters, and 
for this purpose the commmiity is divided into 
election districts or precincts. For each poUing place 
there is an election board, consisting usuallv of from 
three to six persons, appointed by the county clerk 
or other officer. It is the duty of the board to see 
that only properly registered persons vote; that the 
secrecy of the ballot is preserved; and, when the 



78 



Loyal Citizenship 



To vote for a Person, mark a Cross X in the Square at w 
the rigrht of the Party Name, or Political Designation. /V 



GOVERNOR.... Vote for ONE 



GHANNING H. GDX-OF boston> 



^Republican 



WALTER 8. HUTGHINS-DF Greenfield 



^Soclallsf 



PATRICK MULLIGAN-OF60STON> 



^Sociallst Labor 



JOHN J. WALSH-OF boston> 



^Democratic 



LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR.. — .. Vole for ONE 



MARCUS A. GOOLIDGE-OF 



^Democratic 



DAVID CRAIG-OFMILF0RD> 



-Socialist Labor 



ALVANT.FULLER-OFiiALDEN> 



^Republican 



THOMAS NIGHOLSON-OF iiethuen> 



^Soclalfst 



ROBERT M. WA8HBUR!<^F BOSTON 



'independent 



SECRETARY ..Vote for ONE 



FREDERIC W. GOOK-OF somerville 



^Republican 



EDWARD E. GINSBURG-OF brookl)ne> 



-Democratic 



ANTHONY HOUTENBRINK-OFB0ST0N> 



-Socialist Labor 



EDITH M. WILLIAMS^F 



-Socialist 



Fig. 41. Section of a Massachusetts ballot. The same arrangement 
of candidates' names is used for every office to be filled. 



Elections 79 

election is over, to count the votes. You can readily 
see that this duty is an important one. The members 
of the board are usually paid for their work. 

The ballot. We vote at elections by means of 
ballots which are printed and supplied at the voting 
places by the state, county, city, or other division 
for which the election is held. The voter on receiving 
his ballot takes it into a separate, curtedned booth, 
where he marks it. He then folds it in such a way 
that the markings cannot be seen, and hands it to an 
election officer. The officer, without unfolding the 
ballot, deposits it in the ballot box. Since the voting 
is secret, every one can feel free to vote aie he pleases 
without fear of any other person's criticism (Fig. 40). 

The form of ballot differs very much from state to 
state. In Massachusetts the names of the candi- 
dates are arranged alphabetically under the titles of 
the respective offices for which they are running. A 
voter must put a cross opposite the name of each 
candidate for whom he wishes to vote. This form of 
ballot has been adopted very widely throughout the 
country. In some other states what is known as the 
party-column ballot is used. In this form of ballot the 
names of the candidates of each party for the various 
offices are arranged in a column under the name of 
that party. Where the party-column baUot is used, 
a person can sometimes vote the whole of a column 
by marking a cross in a circle at the top. The Massa- 
chusetts ballot is much better, because it makes it as 
easy to vote a "spht ticket" as a "straight ticket"; 
that is, as easy to mark the ballot if one chooses to 



80 Loyal Citizenship 

vote for men from difPerent parties as to mark the 
ballot if one chooses to vote only for the candidates 
from one party. This encourages independent voting 
— ^makes the voter less subservient to party. In 
many places, city-election ballots contain no party 
names whatever; and this is Hkewise true for some 
county, judicial, and State offices. 

Voting machines. In some places voting machines 
are used. These are ingenious devices inclosed in 
steel cabinets. On the front of each machine the 
candidates' names are arranged as on a paper ballot. 
For each name there is a lever. The voter pulls the 
levers for the candidates that he wishes to have 
elected. The device works like an adding machine, 
recording and totahng the vote. On another type of 
voting machine the voter merely sets pointers beside 
the name that he selects. As he passes out of the 
booth through a turnstile, his vote is automatically 
recorded. 

Counting the vote. The polls are open from morn- 
ing to evening, usually about twelve hours in all. 
After they are closed, the board begins to count the 
ballots. Persons interested are allowed to watch the 
count. The difficulty of counting depends on the 
number of candidates and propositions on the ballot. 
Sometimes it takes days to complete the count. 

Honesty of elections. Generally speaking, elec- 
tions are fairly conducted and the vote is counted 
honestly. The law provides very severe penalties for 
bribery — ^buying votes; intimidation — trying to scare 
voters in an effort to influence them; personation — - 



Elections 




DEMOCRATIC TICKET 



\1C DONaHEY 



REPUBLICAN TICKET 



For LieTiIrninl-Governor 
CLARENCE ; BROWN 



SOCIALIST TICKET 



SINGLE TAX TICKET 



Earl h. foote 



fjr United Siaifs S<iialor. 



Fig. 42. A good example of a party-column ballot. Note the circle 
at the top of each column; also the party emblems for the guidance of 
ilhterate electors. By putting a cross in one of the circles, the elector 
votes for the whole hst of the party indicated. But he may "scratch 
the ballot" — vote separately for men of different parties. 

voting under some other person's name; and for 
betrayal of the secrecy of the ballot by election officers. 
There are statutes also that limit the amount of 
money that candidates may spend in campaigning for 
election, and requiring that pubhcity be given to 
their expenditures. Such provisions help to assure 
the honesty of elections; but the loyal citizen must be 
vigilant in order to make them effective. 



QUESTIONS 

Why is the use of the ballot box the central fact in American 
democracy? ^yho may vote? What is registration? What are the 
duties of election officers? W hat is the advantage of the Massa- 



82 Loyal Citizenship 

chusetts ballot? What other forms of ballot are there? Are elec- 
tions honestly conducted? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Qualifications for voting in your state. The appointment, pay, 
and duties of election officers. The laws of your state for assuring 
the honesty of elections. Election laws are printed in pamphlet 
form in most states and can usually be obtained from the secretary 
of state at the state capitol. See Ray, P. O., Introduction to Political 
Parties and Practical Politics; Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of 
American Government, Chapter 12. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Elect officers for your class organization by ballot, following as 
closely as may be the practice in elections of pubhc officers. Make 
use of the ballot also to decide other matters as they arise. 

Elections occur very frequently. Let the class take advantage 
of the first one that offers, in order to learn at first hand as much as 
possible about it. Use the sample ballots and visit the polls. 



CHAPTER ELEVEN 

Political Parties 

What political parties are. On the ballot used in 
most elections the party of each candidate is clearly 
indicated, as RepubHcan, Democratic, Socialist, or 
other. In theory, a party is a group of citizens organ- 
ized for the purpose of making effective their common 
views as to how the government should be run. Unfor- 
tunately, parties sometimes become nothing more 
than the means for getting one clique or another 
elected to office. Powerful "bosses" use them to 
further their own ends in public affairs. The party 
organization sometimes becomes a mer^ " machine " 
which the boss manipulates. 

Parties help to express the will of the people. 
Without parties it would be practically impossible 
for our citizens to express their will. Suppose that in 
your state there were no political parties and that 
each voter were to cast his ballot for the man whom, 
of all men in the state, he considered best fitted to be 
governor. There would, of course, be a very large 
number of persons voted for. If one of these receii^ed 
a plurality, — that is, more votes than any other 





XYMN YXMN 

Fig. 43. A plurality and a'majority. "X" has a plurality, though he 
has received but a small fraction of all the votes cast. "Y" has a 
majority — more than heJf of all the votes cast. 

83 



84 Loyal Citizenship 

candidate, — his vote would probably be a very small 
part of the total vote cast. The great majority might 
have preferred almost anybody to him. He could 
not really claim to represent the people, and it would 
not be at all surprising if his views and policy were 
just what they did not care for. [This illustration is 
drawn from The Citizen s Part in Government, by 
Elihu Root.] 

Now let us suppose that at the next election men 
interested in some particular business or in some 
particular theory of government should say to one 
another, "Let us get together and vote for one can- 
didate for governor." Undoubtedly the candidate of 
this group or of some other similar group would be 
elected. The value of getting together in advance of 
the election would be clearly shown. Henceforth, 
groups of voters would unite for the purpose of get- 
ting the action that each group considered most 
important. For this purpose they would be willing 
to forget about the less important matters on which 
they differed. 

The two-party system. The process of bringing 
voters together has gone on in Great Britain, her 
colonies, and the United States, until we ordinarily 
have two groups or parties that contend for suprem- 
acy. There are minor parties, but usually only two 
great parties. This is really very fortunate, because 
the candidate of one or the other of the great parties 
is sure to be chosen. His views are likely to represent 
those of a majority of his fellow citizens. (In 1912 
there were three parties that polled very large votes in 



Political Parties 85 

the contest for the presidency. This was due to a 
spht in the Repubhcan party. The so-called Pro- 
gressive party, however, was short lived.) 

In some countries there are many political parties, 
of shifting strength, each of which manages to elect 
its special group of representatives. In order to get 
any laws of importance passed, the many little groups 
must be brought together. Then each little group 
"demands its pound of flesh" — some promise of 
special favor. The result often is that some good 
laws are not passed though many people want them, 
while other laws are passed that few people want. 
It is only through great political parties thq^ very large 
numbers oj people can make up their minds as to the 
political policies that they want to have put into 
effect and as to whom they wish to elect. 

Our duty toward parties. Since political parties 
are necessary under our system of government, it is 
only right that every citizen should participate in party 
activities. To say, "Parties are bad, so I'll have 
nothing to do with them," is merely to hand over to 
others one's share in the control of party machinery. 
Party power may the easier, then, fall into the hands 
of evil people who will make the worst possible use 
of it. It is not good sportsmanship to sit on the side 
lines at a football game and "knock" the players. 
It is not good citizenship to neglect duty ; and a voter 
cannot make up for such neglect by criticism, no 
matter how just, of those who take advantage of his 
fault (Fig. 44). 

The dangers of hidebound partisanship. There 



86 



Loyal Citizenship 



was once a half back on a Harvard football team, 
great in every other respect, who had one serious 




New York Times 

Fig, 44. The well-being of each party depends upon the individual 
citizen's performance of his duties as a voter. In this cartoon by 
Mr. Edwin Marcus, the two great political parties are represented as 
distressed at the indifference of the voter. 

fault. He unconsciously always glanced toward the 
point in the hne at which a coming play was to be 
directed. Some Yale men detected this habit and in 
the "big game" with Yale every play in which this 
half back participated was blocked. He gave him- 
self and his team away without knowing it. In a very 
similar way, a person who can be counted on to vote 
his party ticket from top to bottom, no matter who is 
on the ticket or what the party stands for, may put 
himself in the power of those who hinder the public 



Political Parties 87 

welfare. The bosses who seek to control party affairs 
know just where he is going with his vote, and they 
make their plans accordingly. A party, of course, is 
only a means for putting into effect those political 
opinions that we are most concerned about; and in 
order to have a party at all we must give up some of 
our opinions. But a man who surrenders all of his 
principles to a party makes himself an obstacle to good 
government. The independent voter who usually acts 
with a party, but who may spHt with it if it ceases 
altogether to represent his views, casts a ballot that 
has much more significance than the ballot of a man 
of no party or a hidebound partisan. ^ 

National parties and local elections. Wliere can- 
didates are nominated by the national parties for city 
and county offices, many members of each party are 
likely to vote for party candidates without regard to 
their fitness for the local positions. This brings 
unworthy men into local offices and enables bosses to 
use those offices in building up a personal organiza- 
tion or machine. 

It should be perfectly clear that the issues of 
national politics are not the same as those of local 
pohtics. The foreign pohcy of the United States, 
the army and navy, and the regulation of interstate 
commerce present very different problems from those 
relating to the prevention of fires, the paving of 
streets, and the digging of sewers. Men may agree 
on one set of problems and differ violently on the 
other, and no good purpose is served by allowing na- 
tional-party politics to confuse local issues. Happily, 



88 Loyal Citizenship 

CITY O F LAW RENCE. 

List of Candidates to be voted for at Municipal Election, 
December 14th, 1920. 

SPECIMEN BALLOT 

Penalty for Wilfully Defacing, Tearing: Down, Removing or OeEtroyinjr a I<ist of Can- 
didates or a Specimen Ballot — ^Fine Not Exceeding One Hundred Dollars. 



M 



CITY CLERK 



To Vote for a Person Hark a Cross X ^ the Si^uare at the 
Eight of Name. 



FOR ALDERMAN TO BE DIRECTOR OF DEPARTMENT 
OF PUBLIC PROPERTY. (Two Year Term). 

VOTE FOR ONE 



JOHN A. FLANAGAN, 



MICHAEL F. SCANLON,, 



To Vote for a Person Mark a Cross X Jn the Square at the 
Right of Name. 



FOB SCHOOL COMMITTEE. (Two Year Term). 

VOTE FOR TWO 



THOMAS F. GREENE, sh. 



DANIEL H. KELLEHER, ,. 



DANIEL F. MALONEY, 



WALTER T. ROCHEFORT. 



FOE ALDERMAN TO BE DIRECTOR OP DEPARTMENT 

OF PUBLIC HEALTH AND CHARITIES. 

(Two Year Term). VOTE FOR ONE 



EDWARD C. CALLAHAN,^ 



WILLIAM H. D. VOSE, 




To Vote On the Following TJuestions Mark a Cross X ^ ^^^ 
Square at the Right of "Yes' or "No ' 



"Shall licenses be granted for the 
sale of certain non-Intoxicating bever 
ages in this city?" 



Yes 



No 



"Shall Licenses be Granted for the 
Sale of Intoxicating Liquors in this 
City?" 



Yes 



No 



Shall (niapter 240, Acts of 1920, 
entitled, "An Act To Permit. Under 
Public Regulation and Control, Cer- 
tain Sports and Games on The Lord's 
Day." be accepted? 



Yes 



No 



Shall Chapter 619, Acts of 1920, en- 
titled, "An Act to Establish a State 
Boxing Commission to Serve in The 
Department of Public Safety," be ac- 
cepted? 



Yes 



No 



Fig. 45. Section of a non-partisan ballot. To vote on such a ballot, 
the elector must find out beforehand something about the candidates. 



non-partisan nominations and elections, in which the 
party of the candidate is not shown on the ballot, are 
becoming more and more common in local govern- 
ment (Fig. 45). 



Political Parties 89 

QUESTIONS 

Name as many as you can of the political parties that have existed 
in this country. What is a political party? \\ hat is a political 
machine? What is a party boss? WThy are parties necessary? How 
many great parties are there in the United States? Why is that a 
good thing? What is the proper attitude of a good citizen toward 
parties? What is meant by "hidebound partisanship"? What is 
the result of interference by national parties in local affairs? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The history of any of the American parties, whether or not still 
existing; English parties; French parties. Methods of party 
organization; campaign methods; corrupt-practices acts, espe- 
cially those of the United States and your own state. A few sug- 
gested references are Ray, P. 0., Introduction to Political Parties 
and Practical Politics; Johnston, Axex.ajvder, American Politics; 
Jones, C. L., Readings on Parties and Elections; I%rd. H. J.. The 
Ri^e and Growth of American Politics; Bryce. James, The American 
Commonwealth; Lowell, A. L., The Government of England (on 
English parties); Sait, E. -M., Government and Politics of France. 
See also Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American Government. 
in which Chapters 5, 6, and 8 contain extensive hsts of references. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Study the platforms of the several parties in the last national elec- 
tion and recent state or local platforms, if obtainable. Such study 
will be helpful in leading up to the drafting of a local platform or 
program by the organized class. The platform may be very brief 
and simple, but it should cover the principal points of community 
betterment which will form the subject of the lessons in Part 3. 



CHAPTER TWELVE 

Nominations 

Caucuses and conventions. At an election the 
voter is practically obliged to make his choice be- 
tween the candidates whose names appear on the 
ballot. He may, it is true, write in any other name 
in a blank space provided for that purpose ; but it is 
almost impossible to elect any one by this means. It 
is of the utmost importance, therefore, that we con- 
sider how the names of candidates get on the ballot. 

A few years ago all parties nominated their candi- 
dates by what is usually called the convention system. 
The voters of each party met in ward or town or 
precinct caucuses or primaries and elected delegates 
to city, county, or congressional district conventions. 
These caucuses and conventions nominated candi- 
dates for city and county offices, for the state legis- 
lature, and even for the national House of Repre- 
sentatives. The county or the congressional-district 
conventions elected delegates to a state convention, 
and the state convention did the same for the na- 
tional convention. [Two delegates to Republican 
conventions were elected by each congressional-dis- 
trict convention.] This method of nomination still 
prevails in several states (Fig. 46). 

The direct primary. In a majority of the states 
the convention system has been abandoned, and the 
direct-primary system has been substituted. Conven- 
tions failed really to represent the voters of each 
party because the caucuses were poorly attended and 
unfairly conducted. The direct primary works like 

90 



Nominations 



91 




92 Loyal Citizenship 

this: A substantial citizen, John Jones, desires to 
become democratic candidate for governor. He must 
first secure the signatures of a specified number of 
Democrats (usually a small per cent of the party's 
vote for governor at the last election) to a petition 
proposing him for nomination. He files this petition 
with the secretary of state a fixed length of time 
before the primary. His rivals within the Dem_ocratic 
party must follow the same procedure, and so must 
those desiring the Republican or other nomination, 
each, of course, securing signatures of men of his own 
party. The ballots are then prepared for the pri- 
mary of each party. Jones thereafter carries on a 
campaign among his fellow Democrats to secure 
their votes (Fig. 47). 

The primaries of all parties are generally held on 
the same day. As each voter presents himself at the 
polling place, he is given the primary ballot of his 
party. In some states he must, when registering, 
have declared his party preference, if he is to be 
regarded as a member of that party at the primary. 
In others he may declare his party at the primary 
polls. The primary is conducted almost exactly like an 
election, and the same provisions against dishonesty 
are in force. The ballots of each party are put in a 
separate box and are counted separately. If John 
Jones has more votes throughout the state than any 
other Democratic aspirant for governor, his name is 
placed on the ballot at the state election as that 
party's candidate. 

If you ask Mr. Jones what has particularly im- 



dominations 



93 



OFFICIAL BALLOT FOR THE 

PRIMARY ELECTION OF THE 

REPUBLICAN PARTY. 

WESTCHESTER COUNTY. 

SEPTEMBER 14, 1920 




SECOND ASSEMBLY DISTRICT 

TOWN OF 

BEFORD 

FIRST ELECTION DISTRICT 



CAHDIDATES FOE NOMTSATIOS JOE POLIC OFHCE | 


CANDID 


iTIS FOE SJlESiTTOS FiJE PrSLIC OFnCE 


G0TX£50E 1 

,v:u:crcne, | 


jrsT:ci or iez stphtyt couet 




1 


NATHAN y, MTT.T.FE 




19 


JOSEPH MOESCHArSZE 




2 


GEOEGE F. THOKPSON 




20 


I"; A AT V WTT.T.<; 


SB 






1 


21 


AETHTIE S. TOKPEFS 


LETJTZSAJrr-GOVZEBOa 1 










3 


JKRTnfTAff wnoTi 










Wn.TJAM M HKNHK'l-T 






« 








s 






EEPEESKSTATIVE UJ COUGKlffiS 
(Vote for one) 


SECaZTAET OF STATE 1 


~ 


22 


JAW7.S w jrrsTKD 




5 


JOHN J LYONS 1 












6 


EOBEBT E. LAWSON | 


SlIAIii SiBAIUK 
' Vote for CO e > 


ai 1 


wm 


_2a_ 


GEOEGE T. BrElTNG 


COMPTEOT.TKE 1 


^ 










7 


lAMvs 4 -anrTrnFTT. 


ICEICBEE OF ASKKMBLY 
( Vote for one ) 




8 


WAITZE WOETH 


. 


.24_ 


WAITEE W. WESTAIX 


■ 









Fig. 47. A direct-primary ballot. On this ballot Republican voters 
expressed their choice of the persons to become candidates of their 
party. Note the similarity to the ^lassachusetts final-election ballot 
(Fig. 41). Note also that for each of several offices there was only one 
candidate, 

pressed him in his campaign for the nomination, he 
Avill, if he is quite frank, speak of the hard ^A'o^k and 
the expense of it. This indicates the weakness of the 
direct primar\". at least for state offices; the expense 
of a campaign makes it ver\' difficult for a poor man 
to be nominated. 

Importance of the primary. No primary'^ system 
furnishes any guarantee that nominations will be 
>yisely or even honestly made. There is a great 
tendency on the part of the thoughtless citizen to 
forget all about the primar\-. He Avill go shooting, 
fishing, on a business trip, or, as is even more com- 



94 Loyal Citizenship 

mon, just go about his ordinary work or play and 
neglect the primary. The result is that incompetent, 
unrepresentative, or even corrupt men receive nom- 
inations. Of coiu"se, as is often the case, if no good 
candidates have sought to have their names placed 
on the primary ballots, the case is hopeless anyway. 
If there is indifference about voting at primaries, 
there is far more indifference about getting good 
candidates to run for nomination at the primaries. An 
active citizen's duty requires his interest in both 
these matters. He ought even to be willing to be- 
come a candidate himself, if necessary. The final 
election is only the third line of defense. The first and 
second Hne trenches are the petition and primary 
election stages. It would be a bad general who would 
give the enemy his first two lines of defense and try 
only to hold them at the third. 

QUESTIONS 

Describe the convention system. What was its weakness? What 
is the direct primary? Trace the steps by which a nomination is 
secured. What criticism can be made of the system? Do you 
think that this matter could be remedied? What is meant by 
"non-partisan nominations"? Illustrate the importance of not 
forgetting the primary. 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The history of nomination methods in this country is told with 
many references in Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American 
Government, Chapter 7. See especially Merriam, C. E., Primary 
Elections. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

A debate on the relative merits of the convention and direct- 
primary systems of nominating. 



CHAPTER THIRTEEN 

Estimating Candidates 

Getting information about candidates. As the 
first step toward right voting, we must trA" to find out 
all we can about the fitness of the candidates and 
about the issues for Avhich they stand. In some cases 
the question oi personal fitness will be uppermost; in 
other cases the political principles of candidates 
should be the subject of especially careful inquiry. 

In national campaigns there are available as 
sources of information, first of all, the party plat- 
forms. Then there are the speeches of acceptance 
made by the candidates for President wl^pn they are 
officially notified of their nomination. These are 
always pubhshed in full in all the principal news- 
papers. The newspapers report not only the speeches 
of candidates, but also those of their principal sup- 
porters, and they pubHsh a great deal of other matter 
concerning the issues of the campaign. 

Unfortunately, newspapers are not always wholly 
rehable. One expects to find the views of the pub- 
hsher expressed in the editorial columns; but too 
often the pubHsher's special poHcy leads to the per- 
version and even to the suppression of news. It is 
only by reading two or more newspapers whose inter- 
ests differ that you can arriA e at the truth in many 
matters. It is much the same with the great weekly 
and monthly magazines. 

Using the Congressional Record and other docu- 
ments. You can learn from the Congressional 
Record just how each Senator or Representative 

95 



96 



Loyal Citizenship 



SIXTY-SEVENTH CONGRESS, FIRST SESSION. 



Tol. 61. 



WASHINGTON, SATURDAY, JULY 9, 1921. 



SENATE. 

Satordat, Julr/ 9, 1921. 

The Senate wns not in session to-day. Its next meeting will 
be held Monday, July U, 1921, at 12 o'clock meridian. 



HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. 
Satotdat, July 9, 1921. 

The House was called to order at 11 o'clock a. m. by Mr. 
Walsh as Speaker pro tempore. 

The Chaplain. Hev. James Shera Montgomery, D. D., ottered 
the followins prayer: 

Our Heavenly Father, Thou art the creator of the morning 
light and our divine guardian through the still watches of the 
night season. Therefore we pause at the threshold of our 
labors to give Thee praise. Thy providences are so generous in 
ttie nUnLstries of their love. We thank Thee for Thy -will con- 



dejiendents of one of the elected ofBcers of the House. Appar- 
ently the precedents are that the practice lias been to pay a 
year's salary to the widow or dependents of clerks at the desk. 
Including the Official Reporters of the House. The precedents 
are not numerous. The last time on officer or clerk at the 
desk died was in 1887. A reading clerk died and the House 
proceeded to pay the widow of the reading clerk one year's 
salary. Prior to that time Mr. Hincks, one of the Official Re- 
porters of the House, died, and the Committee on Accounts did 
not recommend a year's salary, but the House increasetl the 
amount and paid a year's salary to the widow of the reporter. 
Again, when Mr. McElhone, one of the OfBcial Reporters, died, 
the Committee on Accounts recommended that his widow be 
paid one year's salary, and the House so voted, and he was 
60 paid. 

I brought Herman Phillips here to the House nearly 24 year« 
ago as assistant Journal clerk. Shortly afterwards he became 
Journal clerk of the House. From then on he was Journal clerk 
during all of the time except when the Democratic side of 
the Bouse was in coutrol of the House. . Be. baO s. long aod 



Fig. 48. The Congressional Record contains a full report of every 
speech made in either house of Congress; also the vote of each member 
on all roll-call votes. One fifth of the members present may demand a 
roll-call vote. 

voted on various measures. You can obtain from 
the secretary of state or the clerk of the senate or 
house of representatives of your state legislature 
copies of the journal of that body and find there the 
vote of every member on every bill. Where a candi- 
date has not served in Congress or the state legisla- 
ture, you can make inquiries concerning his past 
record; but you should be careful to hear from both 
his friends and his opponents so that you may not be 
governed by biased information. In city elections you 
can depend to some extent on published reports of 
the city government. In some states and cities 
there are good-government organizations which give 
out information and make recommendations. These 
are of great assistance. 

The short-ballot movement. The very large num- 
ber of candidates makes it difficult to find out as 



Estiniat ing Candidates 



97 



much as we should about them. There are usually 
several candidates for each office, and there are many 
offices to be filled by election. Not only are the 
important offices elective, as the offices of President, 
governor, or members of Congress, in filling which 
the people are deeply interested, but a great number 
of lesser offices, about which people ordinarily give 
themselves Uttle concern, are elective. // the higher 




Fig. 49. This ballot from a Middle Western state 
has six party columns and an additional column 
for independent voting. It requires the elector's 
decision on filling 34 offices, from United States 
President to township assessor. 



98 



Loyal Citizenship 
BALLOT PAPER 



1 






NETTLEFOLD. 

(John Sutton Nettlefold, Winter- 
bourn, Edgbaston Park Road, 
Edgbaston, Gentleman.) 


2 


TUNBRIDGE. 

(William Stephen Tunbridge, 

Rocklands, Woodbourne Road, 

Edgbaston, Solicitor.) 





Fig. 50. The official ballot used in an English city election. The 
elector was required to choose a person to fill a single office, councilor 
from his ward. He had the opportunity of making an intelligent 
choice. 

officials only were elected, and if these officials appointed 
men to the minor positions, the ballot would be much 
shorter and the citizen could mark it far more intelli- 
gently. Such different men as Woodrow Wilson, 
William H. Taft, and Theodore Roosevelt have 
urged the necessity of making the voter's task easier 
by making the ballot shorter. As we study local and 
state government, we shall come back again and 
again to the subject of the "short ballot." It is cer- 
tainly unfortunate to have so many elective offices as 
1o discourage the citizen from trying to find out about 
the many candidates for them (Figs. 49 and 50). 

A candidate's appeal. In considering the merits 
of any candidate, you should lay more stress upon his 
record than upon his promises. You must always 
try to find out whether or not he is sincere. This is a 



Estimating Candidates 99 

difficult thing to do, because many politicians are as 
clever as good actors in seeming to be sincere. When 
a candidate talks almost altogether about his party's 
history or points with pride to the achievements of 
Thomas Jefferson or Abraham Lincoln, it is probably 
because he has very little to say for himself. When a 
candidate appeals to sentiment and prejudice rather 
than to reason, you may well distrust him as a dema- 
gogue. 

What constitutes a good representative. A repre- 
sentative should be a person of reputable private life, 
with a clear record for sobriety and honesty. He 
should, other things being equal, have a^i education 
superior to the average in the community. On the 
other hand, he should not be removed by any per- 
sonal advantage that he may possess from a true 
sympathy with the people. Social position, wealth, 
and education do not necessarily remove a man from 
such sympathy, but they sometimes do. 

A representative should be a man of some force and 
personality, able to impress his ideas on others. 
Without these quahties he may be an honest and 
intelHgent representative, but he will not be a very 
effective one. He must have courage, particularly 
moral and intellectual courage. He should not merely 
reflect the wishes of his constituents; he should use 
his best judgment for the benefit of aU. He should 
not be an extremist or a person given to fads or 
notions, but he should be open-minded and ready to 
lead in securing the adoption of new ideas that are 
worth while. 



100 Loyal Citizenship 

Finally, a representative should be a man who has 
not been intimately associated with any corrupt poli- 
tical machine. Such political machines have often 
made use of men of reputable life, good ability, and 
fine reputation, upon whom they had some secret 
hold or upon whom they could for some reason de- 
pend to serve their ends — an arrangement that sug- 
gests the fable of the wolf that wore the coat of a 
sheep. 

QUESTIONS 

What is the proper attitude toward party? How can we obtain 
information about candidates? Why must we be on our guard with 
reference to newspapers? How can we use the Congressional 
Record? the journal of the state legislature? What is the short- 
ballot movement? Why should we distrust candidates' promises? 
What qualities must a good representative have? What qualities 
must he not have? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The character of any truly great American politican will, if 
analyzed, illustrate and enforce the truths brought out in the text. 
Different students may each be asked to describe an ideal repre- 
sentative by making a composite list of the outstanding characteris- 
tics of two such contrasting personages as Hamilton and Jefferson, 
John Quincy Adams and Jackson, or Clay and Webster. These 
composite characters, as "Alexander Jefferson" and "John Quincy 
Jackson," may afterward be placed in nomination at a mock national 
convention. 

The short-ballot movement is a splendid topic. Write the National 
Mimicipal League, 261 Broadway, New York City, for information. 
See also Reed, T. H., Government for the People, pages 95-107; and 
Childs, R. S., Short-Ballot Principles. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 
Let the class assume the role of the city or county central com- 
mittee of a good-government candidate for mayor, district attorney, 
or other office. The class may prepare a campaign speech or circular 
for general distribution, telling what kind of representative the can- 
didate would make. 



CHAPTER FOURTEEN 

The Citizen as Lawmaker 

Voting directly on propositions. The citizen not 
only has to select representatives, but also, with in- 
creasing frequency, he has to vote "Yes" or "No" 
directly on proposed measures. Changes in state 
constitutions are practically always passed upon by 
the people. Amendments to city charters, proposi- 
tions to borrow money by the sale of bonds, and 
other matters in many cases have to be ratified by 
popular vote. Furthermore, in several states and 
many cities the people possess the power of initiative 
and referendum. % 

By " initiative''' is meant the power of proposing laws 
hy petition. A constitutional amendment, a law, an 
ordinance, or a charter change is proposed by some 
individual or committee. If a certain specified num- 
ber of voters attach their names to the proposition, 
it is submitted at an ensuing election. If a majority 
is in favor of the measure, it becomes law. 

^y ''referendum'' is meant the submission to the 
people of a matter that has already been enacted as law. 
The referendum is instituted by petition. Where the 
right of referendum exists, the operation of all 
measures except "emergency" measures is suspended 
from thirty to ninety days to allow those opposed to 
it to circulate petitions. If enough signatures are 
secured, the measure remains suspended and is 
placed on the ballot at the next election. We speak 
of the use of the initiative and referendum as direct 
legislation. 

101 



102 



Loyal Citizenship 




Fig. 51. The citizen rulers of ancient Athens listening to their great 
statesman Pericles, who led them through the power of persuasion. 



Legislation by the people themselves is the dis- 
tinctive feature in direct democracy as contrasted with 
representative democracy. The ancient Athenian 
citizens, when they met in a single body and made 
their laws, were practicing direct democracy, and the 
citizens of some New England towns are still doing 
this in local affairs (Fig. 51). Om* republic is a 
representative democracy. The vastness of modern 
populations has compelled the resort to legislation 
through representatives. However, through the de- 
vices of the initiative and the referendum there has 
been a return in recent years, in some measure, to 
direct democracy. 

Serious business for the voter. In many states, 
voting on propositions has become a very serious 



The Citizen as Lawmaker 



103 



part of the citizen's business. For example, in De- 
cember, 1914, the people of California voted on forty- 
eight questions. The text of the propositions and 
arguments for and against them, which the law re- 
quired to be placed in the hands of each voter. 



Amendments to Constitution 



and 



Proposed Statutes 



Arguments Respecting the Same 

To te Submitted to the Electors of tlie State of California at the 
General ElectibQ oa 

TUESDAY, N0\T:»reER.2, 1920 



Index, ballat titles with mnnbers and ceztifieate' appear in last pages 

PVoposed changes in proTiaiou are printed in black-faced type 

ProrisiO'a^ propo«ed to be repealed are printed io italics 



Fig. 52. A booklet like this is sent to every voter in Cali- 
fornia before each state election. It gives all propositions 
to be voted upon, together with arguments for and against 
them. This particular book contained 64 pages, 58 of these 
being double-column pages of small type. 



104 Loyal Citizenship 

amounted to a volume of 112 large, closely printed, 
two-column pages containing over 175,000 words — 
nearly twice as many as in this book. This is an 
extreme example, but voting on propositions is 
common in many states and the custom is spread- 
ing to others. 

Advantages and disadvantages of the initiative 
and referendum. In voting on propositions the 
voter has the advantage of being able to study each 
question at his leisure, beforehand. Yet many of the 
measures submitted are long, complicated, and diffi- 
cult to understand. They are, of course, always the 
work of an individual or a committee, who may make 
mistakes. The purpose of a law may be admirable, 
and yet the law itself may be very bad. There is, of 
course, no opportunity for amendment. We can only 
say " Yes " or " No " to what is put before us. On the 
other hand, the initiative with the referendum gives 
the people a check on their elected representatives which 
may prove very valuable. 

Deciding how to vote. In many localities civic 
organizations appoint committees to study propo- 
sitions submitted and to make recommendations. 
Sometimes they invite men of ability and repute to 
describe the measures and instruct the people con- 
cerning their effect. Joint debates, too, are often 
held. If election day finds a voter stiU in doubt on 
any proposition, he will usually vote "No." Bad 
laws have such a serious and lasting effect that it is 
best not to adopt a new law until you are sure that it is a 
good one. 



The Citizen as Lawmaker 105 

A word of caution about signing petitions. 
Many voters will sign a petition just to avoid being 
bothered further by the persons circulating it. They 
sign without much thought as to what they are 
signing. Sometimes the circulator gets ten cents for 
every name signed, and people will sign just to help 
him out. In this way many measures that do not 
deserve it get a place on the ballot. Such unworthy 
measures lengthen the ballot, to the confusion of the 
voters, and are a hindrance to good government. 
The citizen should be as careful with his signature as 
with his vote, 

QUESTIONS 

What kind of measures do the people have to vote on in your state? 
What is meant by the "initiative"? by the "referendum"? How 
may voting on propositions become a burden to voters? What 
danger may there be in proposed laws whose purpose is good? How 
can the voters be instructed on propositions submitted? What is 
the duty of the good citizen with regard to petitions? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The initiative and referendum provisions of your own state 
constitution or city charter, and what has been accomplished under 
them. See Reed, T. H., Functions of American Government, pages 
143-152, especially references on page 151. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

In the class, discuss and vote on some proposition recently sub- 
mitted to the people of your state or locality, or about to be sub- 
mitted to them. 

Draw up a measure you would like to see adopted as a school 
policy. Prepare and circulate a petition in accordance with your 
state law or city ordinance, getting signatures among your feUow 
students. Then file the petition with the proper school authorities. 
(Remember that your petition has no legal effect.) 



PART THREE 
THE CITIZEN AND THE LOCAL COMMUNITY 

Cooperation and Self-Government 



I say the mission of government in civi- 
lized lands is not authority alone (not even 
of law), nor the rule of the best man — but 
to train communities through all their grades, 
beginning with individuals and ending there 
again, to rule themselves. 

Walt Whitman 



CHAPTER FIFTEEN 
The Local Community 

The origin of community life. We have aheady 
noted hoAY primitive men got together in httle bands 
for self-protection. They built their huts close to- 
gether and defended them with rude fortifications, 
often with pahsades. Such were the first villages. 
Men soon learned that these villages served other 
purposes, as well as their original one of affording 
protection. They permitted a higher degree of co- 
operation. Division of labor was carried further than 
it could have been among wandering men or cave 
dwellers, and life was enriched through increased 
association. 

The growth of cities. As villages grew in popu- 
lation, they became better places in which to Hve and 
work; neighborhood barter developed into trade 
with other villages, and the matter of getting an ade- 
quate and steady supply of food became a more and 
more complex problem. To groAv, any place must 
have an increasing market for its products and an 
increasing supply of food from outside its limits. 
The extent of the area in which it can sell its goods 
and buy its food depends on means of transportation. 
We need not be surprised, therefore, to find that the 
greatest cities are those most favorably situated with 
regard to transportation. 

In the last hundred years, three factors have united 
to promote the growth of cities, to an extent un- 
thought of in earher times. Marvelous inventions 
have made the industries of cities a hundred-fold 

109 



110 



Loyal Citizenship 




The Local Community 111 

more productive; improvements in agricultural 
methods and machinery now enable one man to do 
what forty men could barely do in 1750; the steam 
railroad and the steamship have given every city a 
world market and have brought to it the foodstuffs 
of the world (Fig. 53). 

New York an example. In 1664, when the Eng- 
lish first captured New Amsterdam, the town occu- 
pied only the southernmost portion of the island of 
Manhattan. Its most important trade was with the 
Indians and with the Netherlands, furs being ex- 
changed for trinkets and firearms. As the country 
along the Hudson and on Long Island fi^ed up with 
farmer settlers, the population of the city slowly 
increased. Its merchants sold the manufactured 
goods of Europe to the settlers, buying in turn the 
products of their clearings. New York City, how- 
ever, did not much surpass Philadelphia and Boston 
until the construction of the Erie Canal brought the 
products of western New York, Ohio, and the 
country about the Great Lakes to its doors. 

The fuU effect of the canal had hardly been felt 
before railroad building made New York's mag- 
nificent harbor the port of the whole country. Fast 
as the United States has grown. New York has 
grown faster. Not only is it now the largest city in 
our country, but it disputes with London the right 
to be considered the largest city in the world. At its 
docks the contents of freight cars are endlessly stowed 
into the holds of great steamers, and the cargoes 
of unloading steamers are packed into cars. Hun- 



112 



Loyal Citizenship 




New York Historical Society 

Fig. 54. New York dock in 1679. London and Paris were many 
centuries old when New York had its beginnings. Compare Figures 
53 and 72. 



dreds of thousands of its people are engaged directly 
or indirectly in the exchange and transportation of 
goods. Other hundreds of thousands are engaged 
in manufactures. 

City growth in the United States. In 1830 there 
were only six cities in the United States with popula- 
tions of more than 30,000. All together they held 
not quite four per cent of the total population of the 
country. In 1919 over 33 per cent of our people 
lived in 227 places of more than 30,000. In 1790 the 
largest city was New York, with 33,131 people. 
Philadelphia, with 28,522, had only recently lost first 
place. In 1920 New York had 5,621,151 people, 
and there were eleven other cities of more than half 
a million. The United States has become a land 



The Local Cojimnmltv 



113 



of cities, and the massing of people has created tre- 
mendous problems (Fig. 55). 

How communities develop. Ever^^ community 
has had its first settlers. Perhaps the very first one 
came trudging inA\*ith a pack on his back and an ax on 
his shoulder and pitched his camp on the bank of a 
stream. Soon the chips were flymg and a log cabin 
rose under the shadoAv of the forest. Then a second 
traveler settled close by for company. Another 
and another foUoAved, usually with wife and children. 
A grist mill was built, and a general store was opened. 
About this time the settlers awoke to the fact that 
they were a coromunity. The first thin§ that sug- 
gested the fact to them Avas the need for a school for 
their children. They held a meeting in the loft above 
the store and agreed to build a school and employ a 
teacher. On a day appointed they came with their 



40 



MILLIONS 
60 



1917 

19)5 
1910 



80 



100 



2zizzszzas^!^mM^^m^^^^^^^ 



v//////y////m^ 



vyy/yyyA/yjA>'/^.//////////////A^/^^^^^^ 



'900 fyyj'y^yyji////////mm!y/////^^^^^ 



\\ 



i860 



1840 
1830 



' W//^///. 



1 890 fyy^jr^/yy//////////////////^^^^^^ 

1880 



vimy///^//<^^'^ //////'^////m////^ 



870 z^p^^^^^^ 



" Amv^mm-^fm 



f 



JJ . S. Bureau of Census 

Fig. 55. How population in cities of the United States ha\Tng 30,000 
or more inhabitants compared with population outside such cities, 
from 1830 to 1919. The hea^-ily shaded part of each line indicates the 
city population. 



114 Loyal Citizenship 

tools and oxen and "raised" a log schoolhouse. Then 
they sent to the older settlements and secured a 
teacher. The teacher boarded around among the 
parents, and at the end of a period of service the 
settlers turned over to some one of their number 
their shares of the teacher's salary. After a while, 
under the laws of a state or a territory, the people 
organized a school district. As the people grew in 
numbers, they found that they needed a constable, 
and then streets and sidewalks, lights on the corners, 
and rules for the keeping of cows and pigs behind 
fences. 

The first settler was self-sufficient. He needed 
little besides his keen ax and the strength of his 
arms. The growing group of settlers needed some- 
thing more, and that was the means for community 
action — cooperation. Under the laws of every state 
or territory some means is provided for satisfying 
this need: town government in New England, county 
government in the far West and South, and township 
or village and county government in most other parts 
of the country. If these methods of local organiza- 
tion had not been provided, the community would 
have had to find its own. The state or territorial 
government organized the county as a unit, primarily 
as a means of enforcing its laws and preserving order. 
But among other things, the county made it possible 
for the several communities to build and maintain 
the connecting roads that they needed so badly. 

As a town or village grows, its needs expand to 
include sewers, paving, a pubhc Hbrary, parks, fire 



The Local Community 



115 




U. S. Geological Survey 



Fig. 56. A pioneer community at Valdez, Alaska. Such scenes have 
marked the settlement of America from Jamestown and Plymouth 
to Seattle and Cape Nome. 

protection, and a real police department to replace 
the constable; indeed, its wants seem endless, never 
satisfied, and always increasing. It must have greater 
powers, and it is incorporated as a city. 

Community spirit. The steps in the founding and 
growth of a community were never followed exactly 
as we have described. But they have been followed, in 
substance, thousands of times in the history of our 
country. Our account indicates how community 
needs grow and how community government must 
be created and extended to satisfy them. Through 
aU the changes that we imagined, from settlement to 
city, there never ceased to be a true community. 
There continued to be common needs that had to be 
met through the joint action of the people. The 



116 Loyal Citizenship 

complex problems of the city were just as real as 
were the simple problems of the early settlers, and 
their solution caUed for a spirit of cooperation just 
as truly as did the raising of that first log school- 
house. The community spirit — a common purpose to 
further the public welfare — is the quality essential to 
successful community life. 

In a growing community there are often forces 
that tend to weaken community spirit. Perhaps a 
new factory brings in a force of foreign workers. 
These, while they remain un-Americanized, may fail 
to get together in spirit with the older population. 
As group of immigrants follows group, — Itahans, 
Slavs, Jews, and Syrians, — each as different from 
the others as from the original American stock, the 
maintenance of common ideals among the whole 
people becomes more difficult. Then, too, as cities 
grow, the extremes of wealth and poverty tend to 
stand out more and more. Glass feehng, strikes, and 
all sorts of misunderstandings often develop. The 
community suffers because its community spirit is 
weakened. Under such circumstances community 
spirit must be dehberately cultivated by every means 
in our power. 

QUESTIONS 

What are some of the benefits of community life? What are some 
of the causes of the growth of cities? Which do you think most 
important? Why? How is this illustrated in the case of New York 
City? How many cities in the United States had over 30,000 people 
in 1790? What was the largest city? W'hat was its population? 
How large was New York City in 1920P What proportion of the 
total population of the United States lived in cities of over 30,000 



The Local Community 117 

in 1830? in 1919? How do communities grow? What manner of 
beginning a community, other than the one indicated in the text, 
can you imagine? What is the prime essenticJ of community life? 
How may Americanization work promote this essential thing? 

TOPIC FOR INVESTIGATION 

The origin and development of your own community, with special 
reference to examples of community cooperation. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

The class organization can begin the discussion of community 
needs with a view to singling out one need that it can and will do 
something about. 



CHAPTER SIXTEEN 

City Government 

The city. There are cynical people who will tell 
you that the city is hopelessly corrupt and that the 
best you can do is to let city pohtics alone. Do not 
believe them. They are willing to enjoy all the 
advantages of city life and then slander the source of 
those advantages. There is much, even in the worst 
city, to admire if one has eyes that can see what is 
good. At any rate, for all the advantages that your 
city gives you, it is entitled to your gratitude and 
service. You should be concerned about its faults 
chiefly with a view to helping remedy them. 

The Ephebic oath. A high ideal of citizenship was 
attained in ancient Athens. There, every eligible 
youth of eighteen entered the Ephebia or military 
college for two years of training. But first he took a 
splendid oath of allegiance to his city. You can do 
no better for your city than firmly to resolve, in the 
manner of the Ephebi, — 

*'To bring no disgrace to the city by dishonest act. 
To fight for the ideals and sacred things, alone and 
with many. To desert no faltering comrade. To 
revere and obey the laws, and to incite reverence and 
respect in those above us who are prone to annul 
or set them at naught. To strive unceasingly to 
quicken the public sense of civic duty. To transmit 
this city not less but better and more beautiful than 
it was transmitted to us." 

The city as a business corporation. The city is a 
corporation — what lawyers sometimes call "an arti- 

118 



City Government 



119 





Pell and Corhett, Architects 

Fig. 57. The group of municipal buildings in Court Square, Spring- 
field, Massachusetts. To the left of the bell and clock tower (cam- 
pamle) is the auditorium; to the right is the administration building. 



120 Loyal Citizenship 

ficial person" ; the state has given it the power to own 
property, to sue and be sued, and not only to govern 
within its boundaries but to engage in many business 
undertakings for the benefit of its people. Judged by 
the services it renders, it is little other than a business 
corporation. Paving streets; digging sewers; estab- 
lishing and maintaining parks, playgrounds, and 
public baths; and providing water, light, heat, and 
transportation for its people generally are essentially 
business tasks. Also, in strictly governmental 
matters such as the police and fire departments, the 
actual work of management is much Hke that in a 
private business. 

Legislation and administration in city govern- 
ment. In every government and in every business a 
distinction is drawn between deciding what to do and 
doing it. In government, deciding what to do is 
legislation, and doing it is administration. 

In our state and national governments, legislation 
includes the making of many decisions of great and 
lasting importance regarding such matters as the 
relations of capital and labor, divorce, damages for 
personal injuries, and the conduct of interstate com- 
merce and banking. In city government, legislation 
requires decisions on such questions as these: "Shall 
we build this bridge, sewer, or street? Shall we buy 
this park, establish this pubHc bath, or found that 
playground? How much money shall we spend on 
poHce or fire protection, on cleaning the streets, and 
on the public-health service?" The importance of 
administration, as compared with legislation, is much 



City Government 121 

greater in city government than in national or state 
government. 

Legislation — the power of decision — should he in the 
hands of the people or their representatives. That is the 
essence of democracy. In a city goYernment there 
should be several legislators — enough so that they 
may deliberate over the questions they have to de- 
cide. There should not, however, be so many as to 
make discussion difficult. There should be among 
them at least some representative of every important 
group of people in the community. 

But administration — carrying out the decisions of 
the people — should be intrusted to men of executive 
ability and special training regardless of poHtical 
consideration, for the more expert an executive is, 
the better the wishes of the people will be carried out. 
In a city, for example, if a man is to be in charge of a 
department of pubhc works, it does not make any 
difference whether he is a Repubhcan or a Democrat, 
a single-taxer or a municipal-ownership enthusiast. 
He may be as he pleases, provided he is a competent 
engineer and a capable executive — the best-qualffied 
man obtainable for the place. Good executives, 
however, are hard to get by election, especially to 
fill municipal offices. 

Forms of city government. There are three forms 
of city government, which with variations are in 
general use in our country. These city governments 
are by (1) mayor and council, (2) commission (3) 
manager (Fig. 58). 

Under government by mayor and council legislation 



122 Loyal Citizenship 

is usually in the hands of a single, fairly numerous 
body or council, subject to a veto by the mayor. 
Executive power is in the hands of the mayor. He is 
elected by the people and holds ofiQce usually for a 
term of two or four years. Sometimes there are 
elective executive officers besides the mayor, each of 
whom exercises independently a part of the executive 
power. 

Under the commission plan of city government all 
power, both legislative and executive, is in the hands 
of a commission, usually of five men, elected at large. 
For executive purposes each member is given imme- 
diate charge of a department or a group of depart- 
ments. The commissioners receive salaries and 
usually give practically all their time to the work. 

Under the city-manager plan legislation is intrusted 
to a small council whose members receive little or no 
salary, while executive authority is exercised by a 
manager appointed by the council and removable by 
them at any time. He receives a fairly large salary 
and devotes all his time to the city's business. 

QUESTIONS 
Is it right to live in a city and keep out of its affairs? How does the 
dictionary define the word "poUtics"? In what respects may a 
city government be regarded as a business enterprise? What is the 
distinction between legislation and administration? Wherein are 
the problems of state and national government different from those 
of city government? In which of these is administration relatively 
more important than legislation? What are the qualities of a good 
lawmaker? of a good executive? Can good city executives usually 
be chosen by popular election? Should executive power be given to 
a body or to an individual? What are the chief characteristics 
of mayor and council government? of commission government? of 
manager government? 



City Government 



123 






♦T" 


It r-p-i T-M-i-— ^-^NT 












Tnr. i-'iiui^i-jti 




JUDICL^RY 




J 




CITY COMMISSION ' 


COMM'R.OF 

FINANCE & 

REVENUE 


COMM'R.OF 

PUBLIC 

WORKS 


COMM'R.OF 

PUBLIC 

AFFAIRS 


COMM'R. OF 

PT IB. HEALTH 

&> SAFETY 


COMM'R. 

OF 
SUPPLIES 



THE PEOPLE 



CITY COUNCIL 



JUDICLART 



CITYMANAGEP^ 




DEP'T OF 
LAW 



DEP'T. OF 

PUBLIC 

SERVICE 



DHPT. OF 
PUBLIC 
SAFETY 



DEPTOF 

PUBLIC 

WELFARE 



DEFT. OF 
FINANCE 



Fig. 58. City organization under the mayor and council, the com^ 
mission, and the city-manager plans. 



124 Loyal Citizenship 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Details of the government of your own city (in a country school, 
of your nearest city) should be investigated and made the subject 
of reports in class. There should be a report on the charter of your 
city or on the municipal-corporations act of your state. Members 
of the class might well interview city officials. For this pm^pose 
they should have letters of introduction from the teacher. They 
should state their business briefly and clearly, take notes, and not 
stay too long. 

The mayor and council form of city government; the commission 
form; the manager form. See Beard, C. A., American City Govern- 
ment and Digest of Short Ballot Charters; The City Manager Plan 
(pubhshed by the Short Ballot Organization, New York City); 
Debaters' Handbook Series, The City Manager Plan; Reed, T. H., 
Form and Functions of American Government, Chapter 16; and recent 
magazine articles. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

A debate on the proposition: Resolved, That the manager form of 
government is best suited to the conditions of American cities. 

The organized class may test the relative merits of committee and 
single-head management by applying them in different matters that 
it may be interested in. 

A talk by the mayor or some other city official will be helpful. 

If possible, arrangements should be made to have the class as a 
whole attend a meeting of the city council. 

The class may perhaps desire to take the Ephebic oath. 



CHAPTER SEVENTEEN 
Town and Township Government 

The town or township. The early settlements in 
New England were usually made by groups of set- 
tlers, each group already organized as a church and 
going in a body to occupy lands that had been 
granted it. All New England thus came to be a 
patchwork of irregularly shaped towns of varying area 
and population. But west of the Alleghenies, Con- 
gress divided the country into townships, every one 
six miles square and with boundaries running always 
north, south, east, and west. These Congressional 
townships did not correspond at all with the natural 
lay of the land, and this fact kept them ftom develop- 
ing a really vigorous community life. 

The New England town. The New England set- 
tlers were very independent people, who governed 
themselves in a town meeting of all the voters. They 
had no very clear idea of any limits to their author- 
ity, and they attended to matters as varied as buying 
a dress for a poor widow and defying the king. The 
town meetings were "not only the source but the 
school of democracy." They are no longer so glori- 
ously independent as in colonial times, but they are 
even yet the most democratic governments within 
our country. Many of the larger towns have become 
cities, so that the towns of the present day are usually 
small in population ; but a surprisingly large number 
of communities have clung to town government long 
after becoming big enough to be cities. 

The town meeting. The governing authority of 

125 



126 



Loyal Citizenship 




Fig. 59. Scene from the Pilgrim Tercentenary pageant held at Plym- 
outh, Massachusetts. It represents the signing of the Mayflower 
Compact, which is regarded as the first of written constitutions. It 
provided for the government of the first New England community. 

a New England town, as we have seen, is the town 
meeting, an assembly of all the voters. It is held 
annually in the town hall, and special town meetings 
may be held when there is occasion for them. The 
regular meeting receives the reports of the various 
officers for the year preceding, passes on their 
accounts, elects their successors, adopts such by-laws 
or ordinances as seem necessary, and makes appro- 
priations and levies taxes for the ensuing year. It 
lasts all day. The morning is usually spent in ballot- 
ing for officers, and the afternoon is devoted to the 
discussion of reports which have been previously 
printed and placed in the hands of the voters, and to 
other business specified in the "warrant" or call for 
the town meeting. Generally town meetings are well 



Town and Township Government 127 

attended. Any citizen present is free to speak. There 
is a good deal of debating, and the discussions are 
likely to be very inteUigent. No better method of 
controlling the conduct of public servants has ever 
been discovered. 

The principal officers of the town are the board of 
selectmen, who may be said to be the deputies of the 
town meeting. There are commonly three of them, 
but sometimes more. They are usually elected for 
one year and are often reelected. Between meetings 
they have authority to do almost anything that the 
town meeting itself can do, except to levy taxes. 
Each town has a town clerk who keeps the minutes 
of the town meeting and all other town l^ecords. He 
is in many cases reelected year after year. There are 
also town treasurers, constables, etc. To be thoroughly 
successful, the town-meeting system requires a popu- 
lation of not more than five or six thousand thor- 
oughly American or Americanized people. A failure 
in community spirit is even more fatal in its results in 
a New England town than in a city governed by a 
representative council. 

Township government outside New England. 
In fifteen states outside New England — New York, 
Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Indiana, Nebraska, 
Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma; also, Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio, Minnesota, Iowa, North Dakota, and 
South Dakota — townships are organized for general 
purposes of local self-government. In some of them 
town meetings are held, although these are by no 
means as important as in New England. 



128 Loyal Citizenship 

In the first nine of the fifteen states named, the 
executive business of the township is in the hands of 
a single officer called a supervisor, trustee, or town 
chairman. In addition, there is usually an elective 
township board of three members, which has charge 
of the financial affairs of the town. In the last six 
states named the principal township authority is a 
board of three members elected by the people. The 
people in either case usually elect a clerk, assessor, 
treasurer, justice of the peace, and constable. In the 
other states of the Union the township is of no prac- 
tical importance as a unit of government, although it 
is used as a district of the county for administrative 
purposes. 

QUESTIONS 

What constitutes a town in New England? What is a Congres- 
sional township? What effect has the Congressional township had 
on the development of local government west of the Alleghenies? 
Why is the New England town worth studying? How has it been 
a school of self-government? What is the board of selectmen? 
What are the powers of the selectmen? Does the organized township 
exist outside New England? Is the township used in your state? 
If so, for what purpose? What are its officers? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The New England town meeting. See Fiske, John, American 
Political Ideals; Fairlie, J. A., Local Government in Counties, Towns, 
and Villages; Munro, W, B., Government of the United States; and 
Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American Government, Chapters 
17 and 18. Your own town or township should be investigated if it 
is of any importance as a unit of local government. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Turn the class into a miniature town meeting, including in the 
"warrant," or caU for the meeting, questions directly affecting the 
affairs of the class. 



CHAPTER EIGHTEEN 
County Government 

The county. Every state in the United States is 
divided into counties, except Louisiana, where the 
division corresponding to the county is knoAvn as the 
parish. Counties vary greatly in size and popula- 
tion. Outside New England they are the principal 
unit of rural local government, and they are the sole 
unit where there is no town or township organization. 
Cities situated within a county are generally inde- 
pendent of its authority. The inhabitants of the 
city are, however, taxed to maintain the county gov- 
ernment, and they take part in electing its officers. 
The people of cities ordinarily pay httle attention to 
their county government, and machine politicians 
sometimes take advantage of this circumstance. 

The county board. The principal authority in 
the county is vested in the county board. To the 
board belongs the duty of making appropriations and 
levying taxes for the support of the county govern- 
ment; building and maintenance of highways; poor 
rehef ; and the conduct of other matters. There are 
two main types of county hoards. The first type con- 
sists of from three to five (occasionaUy more) mem- 
bers elected by districts or by the voters throughout the 
county as a whole. With many variations it is found 
in most of the states. The second type is a large 
board made up of supervisors, one of whom is elected 
from each town — or ward of a city — ^within the 
coimty. This type of board prevails in New York 
New Jersey, lUinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. 

129 



130 



Loyal Citizenship 




Fig. 60. The courthouse at WiUiamsburg, Virginia, a typical old 
Southern county-government building. It was honestly built, accord- 
ing to a simple and dignified plan, in 1769. 

Officers. Besides the county board there are nu- 
merous other county officers, all of whom are usually 
elected by the people, once in two or four years. The 
judges are in some states county officers, and the 
district (or county) attorney almost always is such. 
The sheriff is the head police officer of the county as 
well as an agent of the courts. He has charge of the 
county jail and is looked to for the preservation of 
order and the detection and suppression of crime. 
The coroner, with the assistance of a jury of six men, 
holds inquests over the bodies of persons who die un- 
der circumstances that need to be investigated. The 
county clerk keeps the records of the county, including 
those of its principal court, and he sometimes has 
duties in connection with the registering of voters. 



County Government 131 

The recorder or registrar of deeds is the officer under 
whose supervision transfers of real estate are re- 
corded. The auditor is the county bookkeeper. The 
assessor estimates the value of property within the 
county for purposes of taxation. The tax collector sees 
to it that taxes are gathered, and the treasurer keeps 
the county funds. The surveyor or engineer is in 
charge of county pubHc works. The superintendent 
of schools is the chief educational officer in the county. 
Tliis is not a complete hst of all the officers elected in 
counties, but it includes those usually met with. 

Criticism of county government. It is in county 
government that the long ballot has its worst results. 
Each of the county officers is elected independently 
of the rest, and the salaries of county officers are in 
many places fixed by state law, which the county 
board must obey. There is no head to county govern- 
ment, and cooperation among county officers is left to 
chance. On the whole, it is remarkable that they get 
along together as weU as they do (Fig. 61). 

County government has advanced Httle from the 
condition in which our forefathers brought it from 
seventeenth-century England. The scheme was 
fairly satisfactory under the simple conditions of 
frontier life, but it is not suited to the needs of mod- 
ern America. There has been some movement to- 
ward a reform of county government, but it has not 
progressed very far. In a few states, including Cali- 
fornia, counties are now permitted to adopt charters 
for themselves. Los Angeles and other California 



132 



Loyal Citizenship 



counties have adopted charters providing for the 
short ballot and a better-arranged administration. 

A unit of state administration. There is another 
aspect of the county that must be kept in mind. The 
county exists only partly as a means for giving the 
people local self-government. It is mainly a district 
for the execution of state business. The judges, prose- 
cuting attorney, and sheriff are almost wholly en- 
gaged in the enforcement of state laws. The county 



PEOPLE OF 
THE COUNTY 



COUNTY 
COMMISSIONER 



AUDirOP- 




Fig. 61. A suggestion for an effective organization of 
county government. Try to diagram the actual govern- 
ment of your county, and then compare the organization of 
your county with the organization suggested in this figure. 



County Government 133 

clerk is a very important link in the election system 
of the state. In most states the assessor, tax collec- 
tor, and treasurer are largely engaged in collecting 
taxes for the state government. Yet over their 
conduct the state has almost no control. Their only re- 
sponsibihty is toward the people who elect them to 
office. This makes the enforcement of state laws very 
difficult, if local pubhc opinion does not favor their 
enforcement. A county attorney, for example, is 
likely to prosecute men who seU liquor unlawfully or 
not to prosecute them, according to the wishes of the 
people who elected him to office. In a few states the 
governor has power to remove a sheriff or nrosecuting 
attorney who neglects his duty, but in most states the 
governor has no power to interfere until circum- 
stances arise that justify the use of the mihtia. 

QUESTIONS 

^Yhat is a county? How does the presence of cities within a county 
affect county government? AVhat, in general, are the powers of the 
county board? AMiat two t>T)es of county boards are there? How is 
the county board made up in your county? Tell what you can of 
the duties of the sheriff, coroner, recorder, auditor, assessor, treasurer, 
tax collector, and surveyor. Which of these ofiBcers do you have in 
your county? ^Yhat other officers does your county have? What 
defects can you point out in county government? To what extent 
is the county a unit of state administration? How much control 
has the state over county officers? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The government of your county. County government is nearly 
as various as city government, and it will be necessary to investigate 
local details. Each office will furnish a topic. Personal interviews 
may be used here to great advantage. 



134 Loyal Citizenship 

Any especially interesting phases of local county history. See 
Fairlie, J. A., Local Government in Counties, Towns, and Vil- 
lages; GiLBERTSON, W. S., Countj Government; Munro, W. B., 
Government of the United States; Reed, T. H., Form and Functions 
of American Government, Chapters 17 and 18. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Attend a meeting of the county board. If such a meeting cannot 
be attended, the prosecuting attorney or some other county official 
may be invited to talk to the class about county government. 



CHAPTER NINETEEN 
Local Management of Schools 

The county and the schools. In most of the 
states each county has its superintendent of schools, 
who is usuaUy elected by the people. ^Yith city 
schools he has practically nothing to do. It is his 
business to visit rural schools, to get local authorities 
to adopt the right methods, and to secure good 
teachers. It is also his duty to see that the laws with 
regard to school attendance and the course of study 
are carried out. He has a great deal to do in the 
collection of statistics, the payment of teachers' sala- 
ries, and the apportionment of state and county 
fluids. Once each year he is expected to hold an 
institute which all teachers are required to attend in 
order that they may be instructed in the latest edu- 
cational methods. The position of county superin- 
tendent is very laborious and difficult, and it re- 
quires a high degree of expert knowledge of schools, 
never faihng tact, and genuine courage. 

In some states the county superintendent is 
assisted by a county hoard of education, among whose 
duties is the examination of teachers. In a few of the 
Southern states the county board is really in charge 
of the schools of the county, but this is not generally 
the case. In many states the schools are largely sup- 
ported by taxes levied by the county board and ap- 
portioned among the several districts. 

School districts : their control. The actual man- 
agement of school matters is left to the school district, 
except in some of the Southern and W estern states 

135 



136 Loyal Citizenship 





Sl...-^ei.»^<>.^..ws. '-.... ..^?..^^,.Ba^a.^jrJW:^^«iife.^.■ , ■*...Y..>ri^.M*^^i^.,.>.yaa.^-tth-sft.v.^A 



Fig. 62. A rural school. The playground equipment is to be com- 
mended, but the building and grounds might well be made more 
attractive. The pupils here would have a fine opportunity for civic 
cooperation in improving the appearance of their school. 

where it remains in the county. Each city, town, or 
township usually also constitutes a school district, 
but as a district it is a separate corporation having 
its own property and its own officers. The rural dis- 
trict is almost everywhere governed by an unpaid 
hoard of trustees, usually of three members elected 
by the people. 

In New England and in some other parts of the 
country, rural and village schools are grouped into 
districts. A joint school committee meets once a year, 
appoints the superintendent of the district, and fixes 
his salary. In this way one man may superintend the 
schools of from two to five towns. 

The powers of local bodies for the control of 
schools include the appointment of teachers, provid- 



Local Management of Schools 



137 



ing school buildings and all their equipment, and 
levying local taxes for school purposes. In some 
states such bodies have a measure of control over 
courses of study and the broader questions of edu- 
cational policy. In other states the school laws are 
most minutely detailed and leave little discretion to 
local school officials. 

City control. City school boards or "boards of 
education" vary much in size, powers, and terms 
of office of members. New York has a board of 
seven members, and Chicago a board of twenty-one. 
The tendency is toward smaller boards, and five 
members may be safely taken as the typical number. 
The members are usually elected, but in a few cities 
they are appointed by the mayor. They seldom 
receive salaries. 



M 






i^^^^j.;^-'V::^ *- ^^ nw^^^ . 


^^r'^'^ 


-"^■liii^Ai iiiiiinin'"i:i Ill Mill. fSSBBBBBB^BlBBBiw 



William B. Ittner, Architect 

Fig. 63. The McKinley High School, St. Louis, Missouri. An exam- 
ple of modern school architecture of a kind that reflects credit upon a 
city. 



138 Loyal Citizenship 

It is the rule for all city boards of education to 
appoint a city superintendent of schools to whom is 
intrusted the direct management of the schools. 
The superintendent is presmnably a trained teacher 
of executive abihty who understands educational 
problems. He is usually given a free hand in the 
management of the schools, so long as the board of 
education has confidence in his abihty. The board of 
education rarely interferes in the details of his work. 

QUESTIONS 

What are the duties of the county superintendent of schools? 

What is a county board of education? To what unit, in most states, 

is the local management of schools left? In your state, how is a rural 

school board made up? a city board? What are the powers and 

duties of a city superintendent of schools? What is his relation to 

the board? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The management of your own schools; county board, county 

superintendent, local school board, and school finance. Information 

can be obtained by personal investigation, interviews, and study of 

the laws. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

The opportunities for direct observation are here present to the 
highest degree. The students will probably want to see the county 
or city superintendent and perhaps hear him give a talk on school 
gq^rnment. They may also want to see the school board in session. 



CHAPTER TWENTY 
Police and Fire Protection 

The prime function of government. The protec- 
tion of life and property was the first duty of govern- 
ment, and even now it is its most important duty. 
Whatever government may or may not do with 
respect to schools or other matters, it must preserve 
order, protect property, and prevent or punish crime. 
The rules or laws which are necessary to regulate 
the conduct of all members of the community are 
mostly made by the states. The states also provide 
the system of comts, a large part of whose work con- 
sists in the trial of lawbreakers. The immediate task 
of keeping order, of preventing crime, and of catching 
criminals is left to the local community. It does this 
work through a police force. 

The need for a poHce force was made clear by what 
happened in Boston in September, 1919, when the 
greater part of the pohce force went on strike. AU 
the ruffians and thieves at once came out of hiding 
and looted and murdered unhindered. Whole stocks 
of goods were loaded in drays and carted away. No 
one's life and property were safe until the governor 
brought in the mih'tia, declared martial law, and 
posted soldiers in every part of the city. 

Policemen assigned to different duties. The 
poHceman with whom you are most familiar is the 
patrolman who walks his beat in rain or shine and 
sees that order is preserved. You are familiar, too, 
with the traffic police men and with the motorcycle 
officers, who enforce the laws against automobile 

139 



140 Loyal Citizenship 

speeding. Less familiar are the plain-clothes men, 
who keep in touch with those classes of people among 
whom crime is most likely to occur and who detect 
crime or, if possible, prevent it. They are not the 
romantic creatures that you read about in detective 
stories. They have no marvelous powers of reasoning 
such as those which Gonan Doyle describes in " Sher- 
lock Holmes." But by visiting pawnshops and sec- 
ondhand stores to secure information, and by mak- 
ing use of the records that are kept in the bureau 
of identification, they manage to make a surprising 
number of captures. 

The bureau of identification. The bureau of 
identification is one of the most interesting features 
of the police department. Here are kept records, 
including photographs, of all persons who are arrested 
for serious offenses (felonies) . These records include 
what are known as the Bertillon cards, on which are 
noted the height and weight, the length and thick- 
ness of the head, and many other measurements of 
arrested persons. More important still are the finger- 
print records. Science has discovered that the minute 
lines on the tips of one's fingers never change, and 
that they are never alike in two people; so finger 
prints are an absolute means of identification. Rec- 
ords are exchanged with the police departments of 
other cities and with state's prisons, so that in a good 
bureau a great many thousands of cards are on file. 
When a person is accused of crime it becomes much 
easier, if a record of him is found, to trace his move- 
ments and to determine whether or not he is guilty; 



Police and Fire Protection 



141 




Fig. 64. IMaJking a finger-print record at a police office, 
rogues' gallery at the left. 



Note the 



also, the police may be able to determine whether or 
not he is being sought for crime committed elscAyhere. 
Police organization. At the head of the poHce 
department in most large cities is a ci\dhan police 
commissioner or a board of commissioners, either ap- 
pointed by the mayor or elected by the people. (The 
head of the pohce department is appointed by the 
governor of the state in the cases of St. Louis, Bos- 
ton, Baltimore, Kansas City, Missouri, and a few 



142 Loyal Citizenship 

other cities.) A board of police commissioners has 
usually not worked well, and to elect its members 
is clearly a violation of the short-ballot principle. 
Below the civilian head of the department comes a 
chief of police, who is a member of the uniformed 
force. Below the chief, the force is organized in a 
military manner with captains, lieutenants, and ser- 
geants. Large cities are divided into precincts, each 
of which is usually in charge of a captain. In smaller 
cities the organization is much simpler, and the chief 
of police is generally the head of the department. 

Personnel. A policeman, of course, should be 
strong, brave, honest, and intelligent. Patrolmen, 
especially, should be good natured and obliging, 
so that they may be on good terms with the law- 
abiding people on their beats. Detectives and iden- 
tification officers need shrewdness and special train- 
ing in their duty. The selection of officers is clearly 
a very important thing. Men should not be made 
pohcemen because they have served or will serve 
some pohtical boss. Personal favoritism should have 
no place in a police department. Competitive mental 
and physical examinations furnish the only safe 
method to determine who shall be policemen. Most 
large cities use this method, but not always very 
carefully and thoroughly. 

The very best men obtainable are required for such 
important duties as those of policemen. The men 
should be paid good salaries, given reasonable hours 
of work, and treated on all hands in such a way that 
good and capable men will want to join the force. 



Police and Fire Protection 



143 



Fire protection. Fire constitutes a danger to life 
and property that is just as real as the dangers against 
which the pohce protect us. The annual fire loss in 
the United States is about 8245,000,000, and the 
annual cost of insurance and of keeping up fire de- 
partments is as much more. Fire constitutes one of 
our greatest national wastes. We have in the United 
States by far the best fire departments and also the 
largest fire losses in the world. 

The success of a fire department depends upon its 
s^Yiftness. Its greatest triumphs are not won at the 
big spectacular blazes, but in the fires it puts out dur- 
ing their first five minutes. The organist ion of a fire 
department must be so arranged that there aalQ be 




American-La France Fire Engine Co., Inc. 

Fig. 65. A piece of modern fire apparatus, a pumping engine using 
gasoline. The motor which propels the car pumps the water. 



144 



Loyal Citizenship 




Fig. 66. Carelessness like this makes our fire losses the largest in the 
world. Note the cigar and the mass of paper which a spark might set 
on fire. 

competent superior officers in charge at every fire. 
Its discipline must be so perfect that the chief can 
send his men and apparatus here and there as a 
general does the units of his army. 

The chief of the fire department is usually ap- 
pointed by the mayor, manager, or commission, as 
the case may be. In most of the large cities firemen 
are appointed on the basis of an examination. In 
some cities there is a civilian head (commissioner or 
board of commissioners) above the chief. 



Police and Fire Protection 145 

Fire prevention. The old saying that an ounce of 
prevention is worth a pound of cure appHes nowhere 
better than it does to fire control. The most impor- 
tant point in fighting fire is to see that it never starts. 

To lessen fires, building laws should prohibit the 
erection of buildings that may readily catch fire and 
so menace neighboring property. The more thickly a 
neighborhood is built up, the more strict the building 
laws should be. There should also be laws regulating 
such matters as electric wiring and the location of 
steam engines and boilers. 

A great deal can be done toward fire prevention by 
simply taking care. Every one can help much in 
keeping down the fire menace if he will observe the 
following: see that every match is out before it is 
disposed of; be careful about lighting fires; allow 
no papers and rags to accumulate under stairs and 
in closets; and do not pack away rags soaked with 
paint or Hnseed oil (Fig. 66). 

The rural community. In thickly settled rural 
communities where the people are well-to-do and the 
roads are good, efforts are sometimes made to provide 
fire protection. Such efforts have been greatly aided 
by the construction of light fire apparatus mounted 
on auto bodies. But a great deal more can be done 
toward providing rural fire protection than has yet 
been attempted. 

Rural poHce protection is in the hands of the 
sheriff and his deputies and of the town or township 
constable. The sheriff and his deputies confine 
themselves almost altogether to hunting for criminals 



146 Loyal Citizenship 

after crime has been committed. The constable is 
paid very Httle. He is usually elected by the people 
and cannot be expected to be trained for his task. He 
does his best. Fortunately, the conditions of rural 
Ufe are such that poHce protection is almost un- 
necessary. 

In Pennsylvania and several other states the state 
government maintains a small but well-trained force 
(called constabulary in Pennsylvania) which is used to 
maintain order where the local authorities are not 
able to do so. It is more like a body of soldiers than 
a police force and is particularly useful in checking 
riots. 

QUESTIONS 

What does the average American boy think of a policeman? Why? 
What lesson can we draw from the Boston pohce strike? What are 
the duties of patrolmen, traffic officers, and detectives? What 
methods does a real pohce detective use? How do they differ from 
those of Sherlock Holmes? What is an identification bureau? 
What are Bertillon cards? \\Tiy are finger prints valuable? How 
does the identification bureau help to prevent and punish crime? 
How is a police department usually organized? WTiat qualities 
should a policeman possess? How should he be selected? How 
great is the annual fire loss of the United States? How does the cost 
of insurance and the upkeep of fire departments compare with the 
cost of actual losses by fire? In what case does the fire department 
render the most valuable service? What part do building laws play 
in fire prevention? How can you help in fire prevention? What can 
a rural community do for fire protection? What pohce protection is 
there in a rural community? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The police and fire departments of your own city, including their 
organization and equipment. See Beard, C. A., American City 
Government; Munro, W. B., Principles and Methods of Municipal 
Administration: and Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American 



Police and Fire Protection 147 

Government, Chapter 29 for the poUce department and pages 464- 
467 for the fire department. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Fire prevention gives an opportunity to do something directly of 
civic value. The class might well get the chief of the local fire depart- 
ment or one of his assistants to give a talk on how to keep fires from 
getting started. The students can, in a way, become junior members 
of the fire department to help save the community from loss. They 
may carry out suitable assignments from the fire chief, such as 
investigating conditions that may cause fires. 

An opportunity for usefulness is sometimes to be had in connection 
with the police department. In several cities, as at Berkeley, Cafi- 
fornia, under Chief August Vollmer, the "junior police" idea has 
worked satisfactorily. 

A visit to the identification bureau of the police department will 
be very interesting. ^ 



CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE 

Preservation of Health 

The community and health. Disease is far more 
destructive than fire and crime, and it is more difficult 
to protect the public against it. Until very recently, 
so little was known of the cause of disease that it was 
regarded as a visitation of Providence impossible to 
avoid. Such medical science as there was devoted 
itself exclusively to effecting cures. But gradually, 
through science, we have learned the causes of the 
common diseases. We have learned, too, that many 
of them are preventable by simple means. Conse- 
quently, almost every community now has a depart- 
ment whose business it is to guard the public health. 

Personal health. To do his best for his country, 
a citizen must have health, and the matter of keeping 
well is largely in his own control. Fresh air, exercise, 
cleanliness, careful eating, freedom from bad habits, 
and plenty of sleep are a few of the fundamentals 
of health which most people can secure for them- 
selves. It is not good citizenship to make oneself a 
burden upon the community through avoidable illness. 

Contagious diseases. There are diseases from 
which no amount of precaution on the part of the in- 
dividual can entirely protect him. Here the com- 
munity, through its public-health organization, steps 
in to do what the individual cannot do. Science has 
made marvelous progress in tracing the causes of con- 
tagious or transmissible disease, and in eradicating 
those causes. For example, it was shown that the 
bacillus of yellow fever is transmitted only by a 

148 



Preservation of Health 



149 




American Museum of Nat. Hist. 

Fig. 67. Fighting mosquitoes by spra^ang oil or other larvicide over 
the pools in which they breed. Where it is possible to do so, such 
marshy places should be. drained. 

particular kind of mosquito ; and by destroying that 
mosquito yellow fever has been practically done away 
with. The bacillus of malaria, too, is knoAAH to be 
carried by another mosquito. By destroying the 
larvse of mosquitoes in the marshy breeding places a 
great deal has been done to prevent malaria (Fig. 67) . 
Quarantine. A great many diseases are trans- 
mitted almost altogether by contact either directly 
with a diseased person or with food or drink that he 
has touched. Every efPort is made by the health 
authorities to quarantine persons known to have con- 
tagious disease. It is the duty of every physician to 
report cases of contagious disease to the health 
department of his community, and it is the duty of 



150 Loyal Citizenship 

every citizen to submit willingly to the inconveniences 
of quarantine. 

Unfortunately, it is not always easy to tell when a 
person ought to be quarantined. One may have a 
contagious disease so lightly as not to be incon- 
venienced by it and yet be a menace to others. 
Sometimes, too, the symptoms of a contagious dis- 
ease are so confused with symptoms of another 
trouble as at first to deceive the attending physician- 
Carriers. There are persons who, without being 
ill with a disease, are full of its bacteria. They are 
known as carriers. On the brig ' ' Acme ' ' sailing out of 
San Francisco, one to three cases of typhoid fever 
developed during every voyage. Neither the water 
nor the food supplies showed signs of infection. At 
last an officer of the California State Board of Health 
discovered that one of the crew was a carrier. On the 
ship's deck was a barrel of drinking water, with a tin 
cup attached to it by a chain. Every time the carrier 
took a drink his dirty thumb and forefinger went into 
the cup, infecting it. 

Public-health laboratories. Every community 
should have a public-health laboratory to which doc- 
tors may send for free analysis specimens taken from 
suspected cases. A boy in the schoolroom has what 
is apparently a bad cold. The laboratory promptly 
discovers that it is a case of measles. He is sent home, 
and the class is saved from an epidemic of measles. 
A girl with a sore throat — only a little sore — ^is shown, 
by means of an analysis, to have diphtheria. Her 
immediate exclusion from school perhaps saves the 



Preservation of Health 



151 




American Museum of Nat. Hist. 

Fig. 68. Bacteriologists making microscopic examinations of speci- 
mens for bubonic plague. Such examinations are made in our seaport 
towns to guard against the importation of cases of infectious disease. 

Kves of several of her companions. It is only through 
the work of the laboratory that such cases can be 
promptly detected (Fig. 68). 

Drinking cups, towels, and food. Common drink- 
ing cups and roller towels are dangerous as conveyors 
of infection. They are forbidden by the laws of most 
states, but they stiU exist. Avoid them. Further- 
more, always be sure that your hands are clean be- 
fore you handle food or drink for yourself or others. 
This simple precaution may prevent great misfor- 
time. 

Vaccination. There are diseases, particularly 
smallpox and typhoid fever, to which one can be made 
immune by vaccination. The United States army 



152 Loyal Citizenship 

vaccinates all soldiers for both these diseases. Small- 
pox vaccination is very commonly required of all 
school children. Many people object to vaccination, 
but it has played an important part in preventing 
disease. Every person who by vaccination secures 
immunity from a disease protects not only himself 
but all those about him. 

Progress in sanitation. Modern methods of sani- 
tation have had a great deal to do with the improved 
condition of public health. At the beginning of the 
nineteenth century sewers were not common, and 
slops and garbage were disposed of as the individual 
saw fit. Today, in every well-regulated city of any 
size, there is a complete system of sewers and every 
building must be connected with it. There is also 
provision for the collection of garbage. 

Sewers and sewage disposal. Sewers cost all 
large communities vast smns of money. They must 
be big enough to meet any need that may arise, free 
from leaks, and so graded as to have a natural flow or 
else be supplied with pumps. The easiest method for 
the disposal of sewage is to let it run into a river, a 
lake, or the sea; but rivers and lakes should not be 
polluted, and oceans are not generally convenient of 
access. The most interesting means of disposal is 
perhaps the sewage farm, where the sewage is flowed 
upon land and incidentafly irrigates and fertilizes 
the soil. Special soil and climatic conditions are 
necessary to the success of this plan. Sometimes 
sewage is aUowed to filter slowly through beds of sand 
and gravel. This method is very effective but is 



Preservation of Health 153 

expensive. The most common means of disposal is 
the septic tank, Avhich is a good deal hke a ver\" large 
cesspool. Frequently some method of filtration or 
treatment by chemicals is used in connection with it. 
It cannot be said that any one of these systems of 
disposal is the best for all cities. The citizen does 
most wisely to admit that he knows nothing about 
sewage disposal and to insist on the city calling in 
competent engineers to advise as to methods. 

Garbage collection and disposal. In some parts 
of the country the collection of garbage is still left to 
private scavengers. ElscAvhere the city lets a con- 
tract to a private individual or company to coUect it. 
Neither method is reaUy satisfactory. The collection 
of garbage should he conducted hy the city. It is so 
closely associated with the public health and comfort 
that it camiot properly be left to private hands. 
The only motive should be to coUect all of the gar- 
bage. Private scavengers and contractors often 
coUect what is easy to collect and neglect the rest. 

Garbage should be kept in fly-tight, metal cans, 
and in a section of detached dwellings it should be 
collected at least once a week. In a tenement-house 
district collection should, of course, be more frequent. 
Care in handling garbage has a good deal to do with 
communit"^' comfort. The refuse from stables should 
be kept in water-tight and fly-tight containers. 
Otherwise it becomes a breeding place for flies, and 
flies are often the bearers of disease. 

Garbage disposal is even a harder problem than 
sewage disposal. Some of the methods, aside from 



154 Loyal Citizenship 

dumping in an out-of-the-way place, are feeding to 
hogs, burning ("incineration"), and reduction in 
such a way as to save the greases of which garbage 
is largely made up. Local conditions must determine 
which plan is best for a particular city. A great deal 
of reclaimable matter is undoubtedly wasted in gar- 
bage. The vital point, however, is that it should not 
have got into the garbage pail in the first place. Thrift 
in the home and in hotels and eating places can take 
most of the value out of refuse. 

Housing. A community, if it is to give all its 
children a fair chance in the world, must see that 
every family has a healthy and comfortable place to 
live. The laws requiring sanitary conveniences, proper 
ventilation, and an abundance of light for city dwell- 
ings should be strictly enforced. In small towns 
proper housing is not necessarily a serious problem, 
since ground is comparatively cheap and there is 
little inducement to build dwelling places too close 
together. But in the big cities, great nimibers of 
people are crowded into tenements where a whole 
family will sometimes live in a single room with no 
outside ventilation. Such a condition, coupled with 
insufficient food, breeds tuberculosis. The conquest 
of that disease depends upon conununity betterment 
as well as upon medicine. 

Vigorous action by the board of health in con- 
demning unhealthful buildings will help to get rid of 
the worst of existing evils. Good building laws will 
help a great deal for the future. 



Preservation of Health 155 

Water supply. Think what would happen to your 
city if it were deprived even for a few days of its 
water supply. An abundance of water is necessary to 
cleanhness and health and to life itself. Fiu'ther- 
more, diseases such as typhoid and dysentery are fre- 
quently conveyed by water, so that it is of the utmost 
importance that it be pure. 

There are two ways of securing a supply of pure 
water. One is to seek an unpolluted source: and in 
many parts of the country this means going to a con- 
siderable distance. Los Angeles brings its water 
through an aqueduct 209 miles long. New York's 
daily supply of 500,000,000 gallons con^s a distance 
of 110 miles. Only the largest cities can afford to 
spend the vast sums necessary for such works. If a 
clean source of supply cannot be secm^ed, the water 
must be filtered. In some sections a sufficient quan- 
tity of good water can be secured from wells. Water 
is supphed in most of the large cities of the United 
States by the cities themselves. It is usual for them 
to charge a rate for the water that wiU pay all operat- 
ing expenses and cover the interest and installments 
on the principal of the money invested in the works. 

Milk supply. A supply of pure milk is about as 
essential as a supply of pure water. It is almost the 
only food of aU children during the first few years 
of life. As it comes fresh from healthy cows, it is 
usually very wholesome. A city's milk supply, how- 
ever, cannot come fresh from the cows. It is from 
twelve to forty-eight hours old before it reaches the 
consumer. Unless the greatest precautions are 



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Fig. 69. Testing samples of milk in a public-health laboratory. 
Small samples are taken from cans of milk that are in the hands of 
distributers. If any sample is not up to standard, the dairyman who 
is responsible will be notified. 



taken to keep it clean and cool, bacteria will multiply 
in it until it becomes dangerous to infant life. Milk is 
often Pasteurized — heated without boiling — to get 
rid of bacteria. Many epidemics of typhoid fever 
have been traced to infected milk. 

City and sometimes state health departments in- 
spect dairies and see to it that they are run in a 
cleanly manner. Cows are tested for tuberculosis, 
and if found diseased are in some cases killed. Sam- 
ples of milk are analyzed, and if they show too many 
bacteria or too small a percentage of butter fat, the 
dealer is obliged to remedy the condition or quit 
selling. In too many places the testing of dairy 
cattle is still left to the owner's discretion. 



Preservation of Health 



157 



Food inspection. There are many other foods be- 
sides milk that should be inspected to prevent dis- 
ease. ]\Iany dealers are too careless about exposing 
their fruits, vegetables, and pastr^^ to dust and flies, 
and a few who are unscrupulous do not hesitate to sell 
contaminated goods to unsuspecting customers. 
Constant vigilance on the part of health ofiicials is 
needed to prevent acts and remedy conditions that 
may endanger the pubhc health. 

The health department. In most American cities 
there is a board of health serving without pay. A ma- 
jority, at least, of its members are physicians. By 




Fig. 70. A school \asiting nurse examining pupils. If she finds eye 
trouble, adenoids, infected tonsils, bad teeth, or under -nourishment, 
she notes this on the child's health-report card, and measures are 
taken to get the case attended to. 



158 Loyal Citizenship 

the laws of the state it has broad powers conferred 
upon it with regard to quarantine, vaccination, en- 
forcement of sanitary laws, and milk and general food 
inspection. There is also usually a health officer, who 
is the executive of the board. He generally receives 
a salary and has assistants in proportion to the size of 
the city. In many states there is a county health 
officer, appointed by the county board. Rural sani- 
tation, however, has been a good deal neglected, and 
any effective rural health work has, as a rule, been 
conducted by state authorities. Much effective 
assistance has been given to local health authorities 
throughout the country by the United States Public 
Health Service. 

QUESTIONS 

Why is it your duty to keep well? To what extent can you keep 
yourself well? Name some diseases that have been practically 
stamped out by modern science. What is meant by quarantine? 
What is our duty with regard to it? What are carriers? How does 
a public-health laboratory help to prevent disease? What part do 
drinking cups and roller towels play in spreading disease? What 
do you think about vaccination? Why should the community 
require that sewer connections be made to all houses? How should 
garbage be kept? stable refuse? What can you tell about methods 
of sewage disposal? Why should a city consult engineers before 
deciding on a method of sewage disposal? What can you tell about 
garbage disposal? What relation have dark rooms to tuberculosis? 
Why is the water supply so important? How can we get a pure 
supply? How important is it to have pure milk? How can we be 
sure of a pure supply? What has milk to do with tuberculosis? 
Why should other foods be inspected? What is a board of health? a 
health officer? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The local board of health and its activities; milk and food regu- 
lations. The local water supply; systems of sewage and garbage 



Preservation of Health 159 

disposal, including, if possible, an analysis of their cost and com- 
parisons with the methods in use in other places. See Beard, C. A., 
American City Government; -Munro, W. B., Principles and Methods 
of Municipal Administration; Allen, W. H., Civics and Health; 
ZuEBLiN, C. A., American Municipal Progress (Re^dsed Edition). 
The American City and The Survey' are helpful periodicals. See the 
numerous publications of the New York Department of Health, the 
Milwaukee Board of Health, and the United States Pubhc Health 
Ser\dce; also Ritchie, John W., Primer of Sanitation. Reed, T. H., 
Form and Functions of American Government, Chapters 22 and 39, 
covers the subjects touched upon in this chapter and gives numerous 
references. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Let the class arrange to carry out some scheme whereby it can 
help to preserve pubKc health. Subjects for such acti\'ity are the 
following : The matter of drinking cups, washing facilities, and towels 
in the school; handling of refuse from school lunches; tracing milk 
and water supplies of the school and securing tests of either or both; 
a ' swat-the-fly ' campaign; an anti-mosquito campaign. These 
matters should be taken up only with the approval of the school 
authorities and with the ad^^ce of the health department. A talk 
by the health officer or some qualified physician will be helpful, as 
will a visit to the office Euid laboratory of the health department. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO 
Community Planning 

The need for planning. Before construction is 
begun on a house or a ship, complete plans are pre- 
pared so that as the work goes forward every bit of 
material finds its way to the right place and every 
part of the structure fits with every other part. 
Your education, too, is carried on in accordance with 
a careful plan made possible by years of experience. 
It does not just happen that you take up each sub- 
ject in the order that you do. Indeed, every one 
recognizes that such matters cannot be left to chance 
or to the whim of the individual student or even of 
the individual teacher. If planning is necessary for 
houses, ships, and courses of study, it must be even 
more necessary to the orderly growth of a com- 
munity (Fig. 71). 

Street planning. Most American communities 
were not planned. They just grew. In many cities, 
of which Boston may serve as an example, the early 
streets found their way among houses without any 
scheme at aU. So crooked were the Boston streets 
that the tradition grew up of their following the 
ancient cowpaths. In many other cities all streets 
have been laid out on a uniform checkerboard pattern. 
Sometimes, as in San Francisco, the checkerboard 
design is laid down on a rough, hilly surface, so that 
some streets are bound to be practically useless be- 
cause of the impossible grades. The Boston "cow- 
paths" are better because they follow the contour 
of the hills. 

160 



Community Planning 



161 




162 Loyal Citizenship 

It always happens that traffic congests in the busi- 
ness district when a checkerboard city grows large. 
Sometimes diagonal streets have to be cut through, at 
vast expense, to relieve this congestion. A diagonal 
street is always a busy one because it is a shorter way 
to more places than other streets. The best exempli- 
fication of this truth is Broadway, New York. The 
checkerboard design leaves no suitable place for the 
display of fine public buildings and is an obstacle to 
the beautifying of the city (Fig. 72). 

Community preparedness. There has been almost 
no community planning in the broader sense, which 
includes making provision for such important mat- 
ters as parks and playgrounds, school grounds and 
buildings, means of transportation, and housing. 
Plans must be made with future needs in mind, or 
growth will find the conununity unprepared. New 
York, growing without a plan, got to be a great, 
crowded city without playgrounds. It then dis- 
covered that it needed playgrounds and paid millions 
of dollars for a few small tracts in its tenement-house 
districts. 

Parks and playgrounds. The health and happi- 
ness of many city people depend largely upon the 
opportunities for outdoor recreation that are fur- 
nished by the city. Our earliest parks were nothing 
more than the common cow pastures. The beautiful 
and dignified Boston Common is perhaps the best 
example of a park of such origin. It was not until the 
middle of the nineteenth centiuy that our cities 
began to acquire parks on a large scale. Central 



Community Planning 



163 




^ L^ ^ .^ 

^ o b J^ 



164 Loyal Citizenship 

Park was bought by New York in 1853, and since 
then almost every other large city has acquired at 
least one important park. In recent years many of 
the large cities have acquired extensive reservations 
in the outlying parts of the city, or even outside the 
city limits, and have united them into a consistent 
system of parks. Kansas City, Missom'i, for ex- 
ample, has a remarkably complete system of parks 
and drives. 

It has been found, however, that parks situated in 
the outlying parts of the city, which must be reached 
by a long street-car ride or by automobile, do not 
meet the needs of the mass of the people. In the last 
few years great progress has been made in providing 
open spaces in the thickly populated parts of cities. 
These open spaces are not altogether laid ofP in beau- 
tiful flower beds and lawns, but are very largely de- 
voted to playground purposes. There are now up- 
ward of a thousand cities that furnish supervised 
play for children on such grounds. 

The most thoroughgoing and complete system of 
playgrounds and recreation centers has been estab- 
lished in Chicago. At these centers there are not only 
opportunities for football, baseball, tennis, basket 
ball, gymnasium work, and swimming, but there are 
also recreation houses in which are located branches 
of the pubHc library, lunchrooms, and clubrooms 
for many difl'erent organizations. It is reaUy won- 
derful to think that in the midst of all the hurly-burly 
of our cities such provisions have been made for the 
development of real community life. Every com- 



Community Planning 



165 







Playground and RecreaHpn Assn. of America 

Fig. 73. Seward Park, one of Chicago's modern playgrounds and 

community centers. 



munity, even if it does not need parks and play- 
grounds now, ought to plan for the future by acquir- 
ing the land for them while it may be obtainable at 
reasonable prices. 

Civic beauty. The character of a city is in a large 
measure expressed by its streets, parks, and public 
buildings. If these are what they should be, they 
stimulate people to a clearer understanding of com- 
munity life. Some persons can never see why more 
money should be spent on a school building than is 
sufficient to keep out the weather. They are wrong. 
A beautifiil school building helps to make citizens 
better by keeping constantly before their eyes a 
visible expression of the dignity and worth of the com- 
munity. It is the duty of each citizen to do every- 



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American Museum of Nat. Hist. 

Fig. 74. A city back yard as it was found by six public-spirited 

schoolboys. 




American Museum of Nat. Hist. 

Fig. 75. The yard shown in Figure 74 as the six boys left it. The 
yard was benefited and so were the boys. 



Community Planning 



167 




Bumham, Carrere, and Brunner 

Fig. 76. The Cleveland civic center as planned. In the foreground 
is the roof of the proposed Union Passenger Station.^ The principal 
public buildings are to be grouped about a park. In furtherance of 
this excellent plan, a good deal of land has been cleared of old build- 
ings and some new buildings have been erected. 

thing in his power to preserve and increase the beauty 
of his city. Young people can do much toward keep- 
ing up the appearance of a town by seeing to it that 
their yards are tidy, caring for lawns, and never 
throwing litter in the streets or parks. 

The civic center. In every city the principal 
public buildings should be grouped with reference to 
an open area — a civic center — where the citizens may 
meet for pubhc purposes. Wherever possible, this 
civic center should be approached by wide radiating 
streets down which vistas of beautiful buildings may 
be seen. Even a small town may have its square or 
green, made beautiful with wide-spreading trees. 

Housing. Every city has building laws which are 
designed to protect the health of occupants of build- 



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Fig. 77. A model of the Roman Forum in its present condition. The 

held and the fate of men and nations 

ings and to guard against the danger of fire. These 
laws, however, can never solve the housing problem. 
Men with money to invest must be induced to build good 
homes for working people. New York State now has 
a law under which municipalities may encourage the 
building of dweUing places through a remission of 
taxes. This measure was meant to be a temporary 
one. The wisdom of giving such direct aid to private 
enterprise and of remitting taxes is open to serious 
question. 

The matter of assuring proper housing conditions 
may be greatly simplified by right city planning. A 
city may be so laid out that there will be many short 
lots on which it will be impossible to build long, airless 
tenement houses. 

Zoning. No one would like to have a soap factory 
or a laundry established very near his home. Yet 



Community Planning 



169 




Metropolitan Museum of Art 

Forum was the civic center of ancient Rome. Here flections were 
was decided by the Roman people. 

such things frequently happen, and as a result much 
good residence property loses value. In almost every 
city there are what are called blighted districts, spoiled 
for residence purposes by the coming of a railroad 
Une or factories and not yet needed for business 
purposes. Then, too, there may be very great loss of 
efficiency in the hit-and-miss location of industries. 
There must be places in every community that are 
especially well adapted for industries, business 
houses, hotels, apartments, or large or small resi- 
dences. By zoning is meant the setting apart of each 
district of the city for its particular best use. Zoning 
ordinances have been adopted in only a few localities, 
but much attention is being given to the subject. 
There is no more important phase of city planning 
than this one of zoning, the object of which is to get 
the most for every purpose of life out of the city's site. 



170 Loyal Citizenship 

Transportation. City growth is dependent upon 
transportation, and right city planning is necessary 
to secure the best facihties for transportation. 
The correct location of railroad lines, especially of 
their stations for freight and passengers, is very im- 
portant. Where there is a river or harbor, its im- 
provement by deepening or widening the channel 
and providing suitable docks and wharves may vastly 
increase the prosperity of the city. Los Angeles, 
situated eighteen miles from the sea, has spent 
millions in developing a harbor for ocean-going ves- 
sels and has annexed a strip of territory to connect 
the city with its port. Means of transporting people 
from their homes to their work are absolutely neces- 
sary in any really large city. Good street-car service 
at reasonable rates, by extending the area within 
which people may live, helps to avoid overcrowding 
and so to lessen the housing problem. 

QUESTIONS 

Why are plans necessary for every big piece of work? Have 
American cities generally been planned? What can you say about 
some of the early streets in Boston? What criticism can you give of 
the checkerboard plan for a city? Why are diagonal streets usually 
busy streets? Give examples. What can you say of the plan of 
Washington? What is community planning in the broader sense? 
Has there been much community planning in the United States? 
What are some of the consequences of failure to plan? What limits 
are there to the usefulness of outlying parks? What effect have 
playgrounds had upon the conduct of children? What should be 
the community's policy with regard to acquiring parks and play- 
grounds? What is the relation between civic beauty and civic 
loyalty? What is the value of a civic center? What was the civic 
center of Rome? What use do the Spanish- Americans make of the 
plaza? How do badly constructed tenements contribute to the 



Community Planning 171 

spread of tuberculosis? \Yhat are some of the means by which better 

housing conditions can be secured? ^^ hat effect may the shape 

and size of lots have on housing?. What is the result of putting a 

factory in the heart of a residence district? \\hat is meant by 

zoning? What transportation needs must be planned for in a 

community? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The topics suggested by this chapter are almost endless, including 
street plans, park systems, playgrounds, ci^^c centers, housing, and 
zoning. These topics should be considered with particular reference 
to your own city. Good material illustrating this chapter may be 
found in Beard, C. A., American City Government; Muxro, W. B., 
Principles and Methods of Municipal Administration; Hovte, F. C, 
The Modern City and Its Problems; Zueblzn', C, American Municipal 
Progress; Xolen, John, Replanning Small Cities; Add.\ais, Jane, 
The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets; Rns, Jacob, The Children 
of the Tenements and How the Other Half Lives; Ko^^ter. Fr-\nk, 
Modern City Planning and Maintenance; Robinson, C. M., The 
Improvement of Towns and Cities; The Survey; Reed, T. H., Form 
and Functions of American Government, Chapters 29 and 39. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

The class will be interested in doing what it can toward beautif>-ing 
the community. If a garden or back-yard contest can be arranged 
in which a small prize is offered for the best work, it will greatly 
stimulate interest. This may be done, perhaps, with the assistance 
of the Rotary Club, Chamber of Commerce, or a similar organization. 
The class should be ready to take action against any of its members 
who throw paper or refuse about the school yard or damage the 
school building. Similarly, it should commend those who are 
conspicuous in preserA"ing the tidiness of the school yard and building. 
Some of the members of the class may wish to form a ci^•ic camera 
club to take photographs of places that do credit to the conmaunity 
and places that need improvement. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE 

Public Utilities 

Public-utility monopolies. Since an abundance of 
pure water is necessary to public health, cities have 
from early times taken great precautions to make sure 
of their supplies of water. Ancient Rome was served 
by a wonderful system of aqueducts. During the 
last century gas, water, street-railway transporta- 
tion, and telephone service have also become essen- 
tial (Fig. 78). All these services are known sls public 
utilities: first, because they are necessary to so many 
people, and second, because they are supplied by 
means of pipes, poles, wires, or rails which are con- 
ducted through the public streets. 

The right to use the streets for public-utility pur- 
poses is known as a. franchise. Poles, rails, and wires 
are not in themselves desirable in public streets. 
The less of them the better after the necessary ser- 
vice has been provided for. It has, therefore, been 
unusual to allow two or more utilities serving the 
same end to occupy the same street. This means 
that the holder of a franchise usually has the exclusive 
right to furnish a particular form of service to the public. 
The individual can do nothing by himself to control 
the quality or price of these services. Competition 
cannot be depended on as a regulator. It is not 
strange, therefore, that the public-utility problem is 
often a serious one. Since we cannot do without 
these utilities, the community must either control 
them or own and operate them. 

172 



Public Utilities 



ITS 




Am. Tel. and Tel. Co. 

Fig. 78. " Weavers of Speech." The work of office, fafcn, and factory 
could hardly go on without the telephone, the public utility which 
has made of the United States a compact community. 

Public ownership. Many persons believe that it 
is wrong to grant to any individual or corporation an 
exclusive right to the use of a public street. They 
hold that all public utilities should be owned and 
operated by the conununity. Other persons believe 
that public ownership and operation should never be 
undertaken so long as private enterprise can supply 
the service. They argue that public ownership and 
operation will bring careless, inefficient, and corrupt 
management; that jobs will be used to strengthen 
the power of party machines; and that taking "util- 
ities" away from private ownership unwisely limits 
the opportunities for private enterprise. Each side 
is partly right and partly wrong. 

Private enterprise has given us many utilities that 
would never have been begun with public funds be- 



174 



Loyal Citizenship 



cause of the risk of loss. On the other hand, public 
ownership is often a practicable means of handling a 
public utiHty. It has been proved by experience in 
many places that a community can conduct an estab- 
lished utihty without corruption and with reasonable 
efficiency. Private ownership, however, is somewhat 
more efficient in operation; and where a privately 
owned utility is giving good service at reasonable 
rates it is unnecessary to place upon the coromunity 
the additional burden of running that utility. Where 
there is public ownership, there is little inducement 
to invent new methods or to adopt improvements of 
any kind. 

The question of public ownership should be settled 
separately for each utility in each community. The 




Fig. 79. The highest point on the New York elevated railway sys- 
tem. Elevated lines, surface cars, and subways are hardly sufficient 
to solve New York's transportation problem. 



Public Utilities 175 

fundamental principle on which it should be decided 
is this, that freedom should be allowed to individual 
enterprise so long as it does not interfere with the highest 
welfare of the community. 

Water supply. Of all pubHc utilities the water 
system is the one most commonly owned and oper- 
ated by the community. The absolute necessity of 
the service, the wish to keep the price low so that all 
the people may enjoy the full benefit of it, and the 
imperative need for purity, are all strong argu- 
ments in favor of pubhc ownership and operation. 
Even the business arguments are in this case favor- 
able to public ownership. The construction of a 
great water-supply system is too vast an undertak- 
ing for private capital; a reasonable price for water 
would hardly allow an adequate return on the 
money invested. WTiere waterworks are once con- 
structed, however, their operation is very simple, 
requiring the employment of comparatively few men. 
The importance of these facts will be clearer if we 
contrast water supply with milk supply, the nature 
of the dairy business being such that pubhc owner- 
ship and operation would not be practical. 

Gas and electricity. Conditions in cities make the 
supply of gas and electricity almost as essential as the 
supply of water. Electricity has largely taken the 
place of gas as a means of fighting, but the use of 
gas as a fuel has vastly increased in recent years. 
There have been very few municipaUy operated gas 
plants in this country, and they have not generaUy 
been successful. The manufacture of gas is a some- 



176 



Loyal Citizenship 




Fig. 80. A high-tension power line. Over such Hnes, miUions of horse- 
power generated by the fall of water are carried for hundreds of miles 
to centers of industry. 

what difi&ciilt and intricate chemical process, and it 
requires a yery costly plant. Gas can be economi- 
cally produced only on a large scale. This, of course, 
does not apply to natural gas. Where that is avail- 
able, conditions may be different. 

Electric current can be produced with a fair degree 
of economy in small units, and a great many of our 
cities, especially the smaller ones, have adopted the 
poUcy of supplying electricity to the public. Of late 
years the supplying of electric current has fallen 
more and more into the hands of great corporations 



Public Utilities 177 

which serve many cities, and which manufacture the 
current either in large steam plants or by the use 
of water power (Fig. 80). 

Transportation. The principal means of transpor- 
tation in American cities is the electric street railway. 
From 1890 to 1910 such hues were extensively built 
all over the country, and for a while they were 
profitable. But at the beginning of the year 1921 
practically every street railway in the United States 
was in financial distress. Higher fares usually mean 
fewer passengers, and although rates were raised to 
ten cents in Boston and to six, seven, or eight cents 
in many cities, they have only partly^reheved the 
situation. San Francisco and Seattle have under- 
taken to own and operate street-car fines. San 
Francisco's municipal railway, operating under ex- 
ceptionaUy favorable conditions, has been a financial 
success and very satisfactory from the point of view 
of service. Seattle has not been so fortunate. 

Regulation of public utilities. There are two 
solutions of the pubhc-utifity problem : one is public 
ownership, the other is strict public regulation. Up 
to a few years ago regulation was left entirely to 
the local communities. In granting franchises, the 
communities tried to pro\dde for a degree of control 
by themselves, and they sometimes included pro- 
visions for low rates in the franchises. Some com- 
panies, however, did not hesitate to secure favorable 
franchises by corrupt means. Local control was not 
generally satisfactory. 

In recent years the power of regulating rates and 



178 Loyal Citizenship 

service has been frequently intrusted to state public- 
utility commissions. These commissions first deter- 
mine the value of the company's property, then fix a 
rate that will yield a fair return upon that value. 
Justice and common sense require this. If a fair 
return is not allowed, men with capital will make no 
further investment in the utility. Up to the entry 
of the United States into the Great War, the commis- 
sions had been steadily reducing rates. War condi- 
tions led them to increase the rates for many utilities. 
The public were very well satisfied with the rate 
reductions. The real strain on the system of com- 
mission regulation began with general rate increases. 
If the public loses confidence in the commissions, 
there may be no solution except public ownership. 

It must be remembered throughout aU the dis- 
cussion of regulation and public ownership that the 
community cannot have the service of any utility without 
paying for it, if not in rates or fares, then in taxes. 

Rural public utilities. There are naturaUy fewer 
public-utility enterprises in rural communities than 
in cities. But many country districts are served with 
water, electric fight and power, telephone, and trolley 
or auto-stage lines. A rural community can, of 
course, do very Httle to help itself either by owner- 
ship or regulation, because it usually covers only a 
small part of the area served by any utihty. It has 
to depend on the state for the control of pubhc- 
utility companies. 

Some states provide by law for the creation of 
districts comprising several towns or even counties 



Public Utilities 



179 




. Reclamation Service 



Fig. 81. A great irrigation ditch on the Rio Grande project in New 
Mexico. Beyond the bridge are the head gates for the control of the 
flow of water. 



for public-utility purposes. In the states of the Far 
West where water is required for irrigation, districts 
are organized comprising all the land to be irrigated. 
The affairs of an irrigation district are managed by a 
board of directors elected by the residents or prop- 
erty owners of the district, and the cost of the 
necessary works — sometimes very large — is assessed 
against the land benefited. Similar districts, in other 
parts of the country, provide for the drainage of 
swamp lands and the construction and maintenance 
of levees. By such means portions of the country 
that would otherwise have remained waste have 
been made fertile and prosperous. 



180 Loyal Citizenship 

QUESTIONS 

Why are public utiKties usually monopolies? What effect has this 
upon the abiUty of each individual to protect himself in matters of 
rates and service? What is the chief argument for public ownership? 
against it? Why is the water system -usually owned by the pubhc? 
Why are electric-light plants more commonly owned by the pubhc 
than gas plants? Why have street-railway profits dechned? Are 
these causes permanent? What had franchises to do with corruption 
in city politics? What will be the test of the success of commission 
regulation of pubhc utihties? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The utilities of your own city; rates and ser^^ce. The regulation 
of utihties by your own city and state should also be looked up and 
reported on to the class. The material will, of course, have to be 
suggested by the teacher. On the general subject see Beard, C. A., 
American City Government; Munro, W. B., Principles and Methods 
of Municipal Administration (on water supply); Howe, F. C, The 
City the Hope of Democracy; King, C. L., The Regulation of Mu- 
nicipal Utilities; Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American 
Government, Chapter 26. There is a great deal of periodical literature, 
including, besides general magazines, such periodicals as Annals of 
the American Academy and National Municipal Review. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

A debate on the proposition that any one of the local public utihties 
should be owned and operated by the people. In rural schools the 
subject may have to be made more general. Two pupils should be 
assigned to the affirmative and two to the negative. Not more 
than eight minutes should be allowed to each speaker, with four 
minutes for each side's rebuttal. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR 
Charity 

Poverty and its causes. Poverty is one of the 
great problems with which government has to deal. 
Its causes are as numerous as the accidents and fail- 
ures of Hfe itself. Great disasters hke fires, floods, or 
earthquakes always bring with them a train of mis- 
ery, which fortunately is in most cases temporary. 
Sickness is the most prolific cause of poverty. Many 
families spend aU they earn in order to live, and even 
a brief illness on the part of the head of such a family 
means its reduction to want. The use of alcohoKc 
liquors has frequently brought about weakness of 
body and mind ; it has wasted the family income and 
at the same time destroyed its earning power. Then 
there are persons who, through no fault of their own, 
are not competent to earn a living. Seasonal un- 
employment is a cause of some poverty, especially 
during the winter, when many outdoor industries 
are suspended. There is want, also, during times 
of business depression when factories are shut 
down. 

Public poor relief. The burden of poor relief falls 
usuaUy upon the town or township in states where 
those units are fully organized, and elsewhere upon 
the county. The relief is administered either by 
overseers of the poor elected in the town or township 
for this particular purpose, or by the county board. 
The relief is sometimes fmrdshed in supplies of food 
and clothing or money. This is known as outdoor 
relief. Otherwise the poor are taken care of at a 

181 



182 



Loyal Citizenship 




Children's Aid Society, New York 

Fig. 82. These anemic children were brought back to health at 
Goodhue Home, New Brighton, Staten Island, New York. 



town or county poor farm, where those who are able 
to work are required to do so. 

Associated charities. Generally speaking, public 
poor relief has not gone beyond the point of reheving 
immediate necessity. It has done little toward seek- 
ing out and removing the causes of poverty. The 
same was for a long time true of private charity. 
The fact that a great deal of money was being 
wasted by various charitable enterprises covering the 
same ground, and that nothing was being accom- 
plished to remove the causes of poverty, led to the 
establishment in all considerable cities of organiza- 
tions usually known as the Associated Charities, 



Charity 183 

These attempt to bring all charitable enterprises 
into harmony and to do constructive work. Asso- 
ciated Charities workers investigate each case that 
comes to the attention of the organization and recom- 
mend the kind of help that will most quickly make a 
family self-supporting. 

Removing the causes of poverty. The community 
has done a great deal to .Remove the causes of poverty 
in ways that we do not 6rdinarily associate with poor 
rehef. For example, better housing means better 
health and less poverty. Sickness, the chief cause of 
poverty, is reduced through such measures as the 
following: taking precautions to prevent^the spread 
of contagious diseases; the maintenance of free 
chnics and hospitals in which the poor may be 
promptly restored to health; the medical inspection 
of school children; and the removal of adenoids and 
infected tonsils. The aboKtion of the liquor traffic 
throughout the United States has removed another 
cause of misery and want. The social-reform laws 
of the last twenty years were designed to strike at the 
roots of poverty. These include laws providing 
compensation for men injured while at work, laws 
regulating sanitation in factories, eight-hour laws 
for women, and child-labor laws. 

The individual and poverty. It is right that we 
should look upon poverty as a social problem and 
upon well-directed pubUc charity as a means of 
reheving it. But we should remember that poverty, 
at bottom, is caused by the imperfect cooperation of 
the members of the community. The effective rem- 



184 



Loyal Citizenship 




Cleveland Society for the Blind 

Fig. 83. The result of intelligent charity. This blind boy has been 
taught to operate a lathe and so has been made self-supporting. 

edy for poverty lies in better cooperation for the 
removal of its causes (Fig. 83) . This does not mean 
that we should stop helping individuals who are in 
distress. In general, it is those who are most kindly 
disposed toward individual cases of suffering who 
are most ardently searching out and removing the 
causes of suffering. 



Charity 185 



QUESTIONS 

WTiat are the principal causes of poverty? Which is the most 
important of these causes? To what extent do you think the causes 
of poverty can be removed? By what methods? What units of 
local government administer poor relief in the United States? \Miat 
methods do they use? \\ hat were the reasons for the estabhshment 
of Associated Charities? How do they proceed when a case comes to 
their attention? What is their aim lq the work that they do? WTiat 
criticism is made of them? What is the individual's duty with regard 
to poverty? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Your local charities and institutions. Reports and personal inter- 
views will have to be the chief means of information. There is no 
book on the subject suitable for other than advanced students. See 
Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American Government, Chapter 
30. The Survey wiU prove a valuable source of material. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

A definite charitable actiA^ity. A small committee, say of three, 
from the class may confer on the subject with the secretary of the 
local Associated Charities or other charity workers. The committee 
should ^^sit the local charitable institutions and, if possible, should 
visit with a charity worker some of his or her cases. The committee 
should then report to the class and recommend a form of charitable 
acti\dty. The acti\'ity should be within the power of the class. It 
should be constructive, and the class should be made to realize its 
far-reaching possibihties. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE 

Training Citizens 

Expenses and sacrifices for education. The peo- 
ple of this country spend over five hundred miUion 
dollars a year on education. In most states children 
are required to go to school for several years — usually 
for a period long enough to take them through the 
grammar grades. Besides the payment of taxes, 
parents make in the aggregate tremendous sacrifices 
to give their children an education; and hundreds of 
thousands of self-sacrificing men and women devote 
their lives to teaching. What is the purpose in all 
of thisP The purpose of the individual parent is fre- 
quently little more than to give his children the best 
possible opportunities in the battle of life; but the 
community as such has in mind the training of citi- 
zens. 

Some of the immediate purposes of education. 
Our educational system aims to make the citizen 
economically sufficient — able to earn the best Hving 
and to do the best work of which he is capable. By 
offering commercial, mechanical, and agricultural 
courses, the schools aim to give to each pupil the 
chance to prepare definitely for a calling; and the 
knowledge that many girls and boys make mistakes 
in choosing callings has given rise to the study of 
vocational selection. Each pupil is studied, his or 
her capabilities are noted, and an attempt is made 
to get each one interested in a suitable occupation 
(Fig. 84). _ 

Since the maintenance of health plays such an im- 

186 



Training Citizens 



187 




FiGo 84. A class in woodworking. The schools of today offer much 
greater advantages than did the schools of a generation ago. 

portant part in success, schools give a great deal of 
attention to the physical welfare of their students, 
and to this end they teach hygiene and sanitation, 
promote athletics, and provide for the physical in- 
spection of students and the correction of the bodily 
defects that inspection may reveal. 

Americanization. The fact that our country has 
been sought as a home by millions of the less fortu- 
nate people of Europe has created a serious educa- 
tional problem. Newly arrived immigrants have 
settled in great masses in our large cities. In some 
instances they have settled whole sections of our 
country. They have had their own newspapers in 
their own language, and their own schools in which 
EngHsh, if taught at all, was only incidental to other 



188 



Loyal Citizenship 



subjects. When the time came for the United States 
to enter the Great War, most of these people, from 
whatever country, turned without hesitation to the 
support of America. There were enough, however, 
who did not do so, to make us reaHze that we had 
been facing a great danger. 

In the United States there can be but one native 
tongue, the Enghsh tongue, and all teaching should 
as far as possible be carried on in it. People who are 
unlikely ever to become Americanized should be and 
are largely excluded from entrance into the United 
States. The practice of foreigners of particular 
nationaHties setthng in close groups of their own 
should be discouraged. 

Americanization is now being furthered by means 
of night schools for adults, with classes especially for 




Fig. 85. A night class for adult aliens. The pupils are being taught 
the procedure that is followed at elections. 



Training Citizens 



189 




American Museum of Nat. Hist. 

Fig, 86. School children looking at the fossil skeleton of a dinosaur, 
an ancient lizardlike animal, in the American Museum of Natural 
History, New York. The museums of this country, through their 
investigations, do much for the advancement of liberal education. 

foreigners; through the activities of patriotic organi- 
zations that provide free instruction; and by pubKc 
lectures. Each of us, individually, can aid in this 
great work by being as considerate of the foreigner 
who is trying to learn our ways as we would have 
him be of us in reversed circumstances. We should 
recognize the fact that men from many nations have 
helped to enrich our national life. But our country 
has given much to them, and for that and for its self- 
preservation it must have their undivided allegiance. 
We can be thankful that most of the people who come 
to America to make it their home reahze this. In- 



190 



Loyal Citizenship 




Fig. 87. The main building of the College of William and Mary in 
Virginia. Sir Christopher Wren, the architect of St. Paul's Cathedral 
in London, designed the building. The college, which, after Harvard, 
is the oldest one in the United States, has been training citizens since 
1693. 

deed, it is gratifying and often helpful to our native 
citizens to hear some of our newer citizens state the 
very good reasons that they have for an unwavering 
loyalty to our country. 

The social value of education. The school is our 
chief agency for making young citizens and many of 
our new citizens socially adaptable — ^wiUing to co- 
operate to the highest degree. The Golden Rule lies 
at the foundation of a useful social Hfe. The educated 
man knows that the welfare of his fellowmen is insepa- 
rable from his own welfare. He has at once a proper 
sense of humihty with regard to his personal merits 
and a proper sense of his dignity as a human being. 
"Education" that simply makes a citizen more ca- 
pable in providing for his material wants is largely 



Training Citizens 191 

wasted. Unless his capabilities are developed and 
used for the good of aU, his schoohng has missed its 
point. 

To play weU his part a citizen must not only be 
able to earn a hving but he must also have a right 
social attitude. He must enter into the spirit of his 
country's traditions and purposes and have an 
intelligent interest in its problems. 

QUESTIONS 

How much do the people of the United States spend each year on 
education? ^yhat sacrifices do indi\"iduals make in the cause of 
education? Why do they make them? \N hat is meant by economic 
sufficiency? ^^^lat vocations do schools prepare for directly? What 
help can a school give in selecting callings for its {jjipils? What is 
the problem of Americanization? What justification, if any, is 
there for the publication in our country of foreign-language news- 
papers? for schools taught in foreign languages? \Miat are some 
of the means by which Americanization can be effectively promoted? 
\\Tiat is meant by social adaptability? What part should the Golden 
Rule play in one's social relations? Why must you know the frame- 
work of your government? Can you be the most desirable kind of 
citizen and not understand the problems of the community? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The various occupations open to boys and girls in your community 
may each be assigned to a pupil for investigation. His report should 
cover such matters as length and character of preparation, either as 
student or apprentice, qualities of mind and body required, oppor- 
tunities in the way of salary, and possible satisfaction in the work 
itself. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

An Americanization exercise. Some members of the class should 
prepare statements showing the advantages of American citizenship. 
Other members should tell why they or their people chose this country 
as their home. 

The class may wish to present an Americanization pageant to the 
whole school. 



PART FOUR 
THE CITIZEN IN STATE AND NATION 

Liberty and Law 



The State, as Aristotle says, having begun 
as a means of making hfe possible, continues 
as a means of making life prosperous. When 
once the necessary basis of authority is estab- 
lished, that authority becomes with each 
generation more impartial and more absolute, 
protecting the laborer as well as the soldier 
and pohtician. 

Arthur T. Hadley 



CHAPTER TWENTY-SIX 
Constitutional System 

Colonial government. The settlers of the EngHsh 
colonies in North America brought with them from 
the mother country their ideas of government; and 
the Enghsh Bill of Rights of 1689 fairly expressed 
these ideas. The Bill of Rights provided in sub- 
stance that laws should be made and repealed and 
that taxes should be laid only with the consent of the 
representatives of the people (Parhament) ; that the 
election of members of Parhament should be free, 
and that freedom of speech should prevail in that 
body; that subjects had the right to petition the 
king; and that excessive fines should not^e imposed. 
In each of the Thirteen Colonies there was a represen- 
tative body elected by the people, which made laws and 
laid taxes. In all but Pennsylvania and Delaware 
there was an "upper house," the members of which 
were usually appointed by the king. The consent of 
this upper house was necessary to the making of any 
law. In each of the colonies there was a governor, 
usually appointed by the king, who exercised execu- 
tive power. 

Early state governments. ^Mien the War for 
Independence began, it became necessary for the 
colonies to provide for their OAvn government. Con- 
necticut and Rhode Island, which had enjoyed a 
very large measure of self-government under hberal 
colonial charters, continued to use their old charters, 
making only a few verbal changes. The rest of the 
states between 1775 and 1780 adopted constitutions, 

195 



196 Loyal Citizenship 

These constitutions specified how the state was to 
be governed, and declared that certain rights of the 
citizen might not be interfered with. If the legisla- 
ture passed any measure in conflict with the state 
constitution, the courts would not enforce that 
measure. The form of government under these con- 
stitutions was much hke that of colonial days. 

Articles of Confederation. Colonies had some- 
times acted together during the wars with the French 
and the Indians; but no effort at union was success- 
ful until the outbreak of the struggle with the mother 
country. Then intercolonial committees of corre- 
spondence were organized, and several congresses 
were held. It was the second Continental Congress 
that began the war and declared independence. This 
Congress also undertook to draw up a formal plan of 
union under a central government. The result was 
the Articles of Confederation, which were adopted in 
1778 and were finally ratified by all the states in 1781. 

The central government, under the Articles of Con- 
federation, consisted of a Congress whose members 
were elected by the legislatures of the states. Through 
committees it directed the conduct of the war and 
exercised other executive functions. Each state had 
one vote in the Congress, and in important matters 
the agreement of nine states was necessary. The 
Congress was very weak because : 

1. It could pass laws on a few subjects, but it was 
unahle to enforce them. It issued its commands to the 
states, which obeyed them or not, much as they 
pleased. 



Constitutional System 



197 




Fig. 88. "Signing of the Constitution of United States," a study- 
sketch by Rossiter. The ConstitutiongJ Convention met in the hall 
where the Declaration of Independence was signed. \Mthout the 
Constitution, independence might have proved a sad experiment. 

2. It had no power to lay taxes. It could only 
decide how much money it needed, apportion this 
amount among the several states, and wait for them 
to pay. They were so remiss in making payments 
that the revenues of the Confederation after the 
Revolution dropped to as Uttle as $500,000 a year. 
There was a great deal of trouble, also, because each 
state regulated commerce with other states and for- 
eign comitries in its own way. This led to disputes 
between states and prevented Congress from making 
commercial treaties with other countries. In fact, 
under the Confederation each state remained prac- 
tically an independent power. 

The Constitution. After the Revolution the 
United States passed through a very unhappy period. 
There was much poverty, and discontent was some- 
times expressed in acts of violence, as in "Shays's 
RebeUion" in Massachusetts. The Confederation 



198 Loyal Citizenship ^ 

was entirely unable to deal with the situation. There 
was real danger that the Union would break up and 
independence be lost, and people began to see the need 
for a really strong central government. In 1787 the 
state legislatures sent delegates to a Convention at 
Philadelphia to prepare amendments to the Articles 
of Confederation. 

The Convention was presided over by George 
Washington, and it included the wisest men of the 
country, among them Benjamin Franklin, Alexander 
Hamilton, and James Madison. The delegates de- 
cided to abandon the Articles of Confederation as 
hopeless and to draft an entirely new Constitution. 
This they did so admirably that with very Httle 
change the form of government they created for 
3,000,000 people on the Atlantic seaboard now serves 
the needs of a nation of 110,000,000 people covering 
a continent. The Constitution was to become effec- 
tive as soon as ratified by conventions in nine of the 
states. This took place in 1788, and George Wash- 
ington was elected President. He was inaugurated 
on March 4, 1789, the ceremony taking place in New 
York City. 

The Federal system. The new government was 
much stronger than the Confederation. It was given 
the power to lay its own taxes and to enforce its own 
laws directly upon the citizen. The Constitution of 
the United States was declared to be the supreme 
law of the land, and in its own sphere the central 
government was able to act quite independently of 
the states. The states, however, were left aU the 



Constitutional System 199 

powers not expressly granted to the United States, 
and these were by far the larger part of all the powers 
that governments ordinarily exercise. 

The most significant increase in the authority of 
the central government was the grant to it of power 
to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, the states 
being forbidden to lay taxes on imports. 

States-rights doctrine. Early in the history of 
our government the idea was advanced in different 
quarters that the Constitution of the United States 
was merely an agreement between independent 
states, and that a state might disregard national laws 
if it chose to do so. Later the doctrine was advanced 
that a state might even withdraw from the Union 
(secede). These ideas took firmest hold in the 
Southern states, whose interests then differed widely 
from the interests of the other states. Seven of 
them withdrew from the Union in 1860 and 1861. 
Four years of warfare resulted in the restoration of 
the Union. Everybody now agrees that we are one 
people and that the union of states can never be dis- 
solved. 

Implied powers. The eighth section of Article I of 
the Constitution gives a list of the powers granted to 
Congress and then declares that Congress shall have 
power "to make all laws which shall be necessary 
and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing 
powers, and all other powers vested by this Con- 
stitution in the government of the United States or 
any department or officer thereof." At the begin- 
ning of Washington's first administration Alexander 



200 Loyal Citizenship 

Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, wanted to 
have created a bank of the United States in which 
government money might be deposited and which 
would assist the government in financial matters. 
He declared that Congress had an implied power 
(under the clause of the Constitution that has just 
been quoted) to charter the United States Bank. 
Thomas Jefferson contended that Congress had no 
implied power to create a bank because a bank was 
not necessary in the sense that it was indispensable. 
Hamilton's view was accepted by Washington, the 
bank was created by act of Congress, and the Su- 
preme Court declared the act constitutional. The 
phrase "necessary and proper" has since been 
treated as if it read "necessary or proper." 

Growth of the powers of the United States. 
Since the adoption of the Constitution the authority 
of the Federal Government has increased very much, 
while the authority of the states has, by comparison, 
diminished. The growth of interstate commerce and 
the extension of the doctrine of implied powers have had 
much to do with this. 

In 1788 there was little commerce between the 
states. Stretches of wilderness separated most of the 
settlements, and transportation was slow and expen- 
sive. The fact that Congress had power to regulate 
commerce between the states was of little importance 
under such conditions. But now, with our wonderful 
means of transportation, most of the articles we use 
are brought to us by interstate commerce — regulated by 
Congress. The result is that the Federal government 



Constitutional System 



201 




U. S. A. Signal Corps 

Fig. 89. Our Federal government centers in the Capitol at Washing- 
ton. The building itself serves as a symbol of the nation. This 
photograph was taken on the night when war was declared, April 6, 
1917. 

now controls many matters formerly left to the states 
— ^for example, railroad rates (even between points 
within a state), and the preparation of foods and 
drugs that enter into interstate commerce. 

QUESTIONS 

What ideas of liberty and government did the settlers of the 
English colonies in America bring with them.^ What was the general 
scheme of government in the Thirteen Colonies.'^ What was a 
colonial charter.^ WTiat did the colonies do with regard to govern- 
ment when the War for Independence began .^^ What were some of 
the changes from colonial government .-^ \\Tiat is a constitution.^ 
How does it differ from an ordinary law.^ Can you name any of the 
pre-Revolutionary attempts at union .^ What were the Articles of 



202 Loyal Citizenship 

Confederation? How was Congress elected? How many votes did 
each state have? What were the chief causes of the weakness of 
Congress under the Confederation? What was the Constitutional 
Convention of 1787? Name some of its members. What can you 
say of the permanency of its results? In what way was the new 
central government strengthened? What was the most significant 
increase in its powers? What is meant by "implied powers"? 
On what theory was the idea of the right of secession based? What 
effect did the war between the states have on this theory? Explain 
the growth in the power of the Federal government as compared 
with the power of the states. Give examples. 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Study the Constitution itself. Do not try to consider matters of 
fine distinction, but make yourself familiar with the document in its 
main outlines. The Constitution is printed at the back of this book. 

Each of the powers of Congress enumerated in the Constitution 
may be made a subject for report. The powers specifically denied 
the states or Congress may also be reported on. The government of 
any one colony furnishes a good topic. 

See Kimball, Everett, The National Government of the United 
States; Munro, W. B., The Government of the United States; Beard, 
C. A., American Government and Politics; Reed, T. H., Form and 
Functions of American Government, Chapters 1 to 4 inclusive. 

For the Constitution and for documents other than the Consti- 
tution of the United States see MacDonald, W., Charters and 
Other Documents Illustrative of American History; Beard, C. A., 
Readings in American Government and Politics. Thorpe,, F. N., 
American Charters and Constitutions, contains all the charters and 
constitutions of each of the states. The Articles of Confederation 
may be found in American History Leaflets No. 7 and in Reed's 
Form and Functions of American Government. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

An exercise commemorative of the adoption of the Constitution. 
This may take the form of a brief pageant or a tableau showing the 
scene in Independence Hall when the Constitution was signed. If 
such an effort is too elaborate, members of the class may recite 
extracts from the Constitution and from the great tributes to the 
Constitution by our statesmen and poets and by foreign observers 
like Gladstone and Bryce. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-SEVEN 
Making Law 

Three departments of government. The constitu- 
tions of the United States and the several states 
make a very clear separation between the officers or 
bodies that exercise legislative (law-making), execu- 
tive (law-enforcing), and judicial (law-applying) 
powers in our government. The purpose in this is 
to keep supreme power from falling into the hands 
of one department, the better to protect our liberties. 
We shall consider the legislative, executive, and judi- 
cial departments of our government in order; but 
first we need to get a clearer idea of what laws are 
and how they originate. 

Our laws. Laws are those rules of conduct which 
are enforced by the government of nation, state, or 
community. The earhest laws were founded on 
custom, and to this day the very core of our law is based 
on custom expressed in the decisions of judges. In old- 
time England, when the courts had decided a case 
based on a given state of facts, they decided all 
similar cases in the same way. Thus in the course of 
centuries a great body of "judge-made law*" came to 
be estabhshed. This law, founded on reason and the 
authority of earlier cases ("precedent" or custom), 
is known as the common law. It prevails throughout 
the English-speaking countries, and the courts are 
stiU making law by their decisions. Other laws are 
made by statute; that is, by the action of law-making 
bodies such as the Congress of the United States or 
the state legislatures. 

203 



204 



Loyal Citizenship 




Fig. 90. The senate chamber of the state of Texas. There are 31 
members of the Texas senate. This body is small enough for calm 
and thorough consideration of public measures. 

The state legislature. All our state legislatures 
consist of two houses, a larger or lower one called the 
"house of representatives" or the "assembly," and 
an upper house called the "senate." A bill must be 
passed by both houses to become law. There is 
no difference in the power of the two houses, except 
that laws appropriating money or levying taxes 
must usually begin in the lower house. The upper 
house is generally more influential than the lower 
house. The term of a senator is usually four years, 
while that of a representative is usually two years. 
The members of the senate, being fewer in number, 
are elected from larger districts. The senate being 
smaller, the individual members have greater op- 
]3ortunity to express themselves. All these cir- 



Making Law 205 

cumstances help to make the senate an abler body 
than the house. The legislature meets every two 
years m most states. In a few it meets e\er\ vear. 
Special sessions may be called by the governor, and 
these can take up only the business that the governor 
specifies in his call. 

The people, unfortunately, do not take enough interest 
in the election of state senators and representatives. 
Their work is of the highest importance, and it could 
be done a great deal better than it is now. For one 
thing, our legislators make too many laws and make 
them in too much of a hurrA'. It is not unusual in the 
larger states to have eight or nine hundred laws 
passed in a session lasting about one hundred days, 
about three fourths of them being passed in the last 
fifteen days. Haste makes waste in law-making as 
in ever\'thing else. The members of both houses 
receive small salaries, varvinof from S1500 a vear in 
New York and Pemisylvania to three dollars a day 
in Kansas and Oregon. Many people believe that a 
single house of thirty or forty well-paid members could 
do the work of state law-making more cheaply and more 
effectively than it is now done. Generally speaking, 
state legislators are fairly representative of the peo- 
ple. Most of them work hard and try to do what is 
right. 

The Congress of the United States : The Senate. 
The Congress of the United States is likewise com- 
posed of two houses. The upper house or Senate 
was intended by the framers of the Constitution to 
represent the states as such. For this reason each state 



206 Loyal Citizenship 

was allowed two Senators. Originally these were 
chosen by the state legislatures; but since the adop- 
tion of the Seventeenth Amendment they have been 
elected by the people. The Senate was also intended 
to serve as a protection against hasty action following 
sudden changes of opinion by the people. For this 
reason the term of a Senator was fixed at six years, 
and the terms were so arranged that one third of the 
membership changes every two years. 

The Senate has proved to be much more powerful 
than the House of Representatives. Its consent is 
necessary to the ratification of treaties (for this purpose 
a two-thirds vote is required) and to the making of 
important appointments by the President. But it is 
the long senatorial term and the small size of the body 
which really account for its superiority. 

The House of Representatives. The House of 
Representatives began with sixty-five members. The 
Constitution provides that the number of represen- 
tatives from each state shall be fixed every ten years, 
immediately following the census. The number of 
members has been steadily increased until there are 
now over four hundred. The House has to meet, 
therefore, in a very large room, so large that it is 
difficult for any one except a trained public speaker 
to be heard by the other members. The great size of 
the House has made it necessary to have rules for its 
procedure which very greatly limit the power of the indi- 
vidual member. The House of Representatives is 
made up of men who, on the average, will compare 
favorably with the English House of Commons or the 



Making Law 207 

French Chamber of Deputies. There are, however, 
very few really great men in the House of Repre- 
sentatives. This is due chiefly to the fact that a man 
cannot become a leader in the House except by being 
a member of it for many years. Places on the impor- 
tant committees, which as we shall see do most of 
the work, are given on the basis of length of service. 

How laws begin. Laws begin as bills (proposed 
laws), and each member of a legislative body may 
prepare and introduce them. Legislators are willing, 
also, to introduce bills that are prepared by private 
individuals or organizations. 

Some of the more important biUs, m which the 
great pohtical parties are interested, are carefully 
prepared by experienced members of the legislature 
or by officers of the government. 

Legislative reference bureaus. The bills prepared 
by ordinary members and by private individuals and 
organizations are often carelessly drawn. In this 
way a good many loose and ineffective laws, and 
some really bad ones, have been adopted. To correct 
this evil many states have estabhshed legislative 
reference bureaus. These bureaus are in charge of 
experts who gather material on the subjects in which 
members are interested and help them in the prepara- 
tion of biUs. This has done a great deal toward im- 
proving the quahty of our laws. 

The committee system. So many bills are intro- 
duced in our legislative bodies that it would be 
impossible to consider them all before each house. 
Furthermore, it is not possible for any member to 



208 Loyal Citizenship 

study all the bills. Each house, therefore, is divided 
into committees for the consideration of different im- 
portant classes of legislation. Upon these committees 
the party in power always has a safe majority of 
members. 

The committees in state legislatures are usually 
appointed by the presiding officer. In both the 
United States Senate and the House of Representa- 
tives committees are, in name, appointed by the 
body itself. In practice, in the Senate the majority 
and the minority party each hold a caucus. Each 
caucus then appoints a Committee on Committees, 
which names the members of its party that are to 
serve on committees of the Senate. In the House of 
Representatives the caucus of the majority party 
appoints fourteen and that of the minority seven 
members of the Committee on Ways and Means, which 
suggests to the House a "slate" of all the other com- 
mittees. 

The members of each committee are usually per- 
sons interested in the particular subject to which its 
attention is devoted. Thus the judiciary committee 
is always made up of lawyers, and the committee on 
agriculture, as far as possible, of farmers. Committee 
chairmanships and places on the more important 
committees usually are given to the oldest members 
in point of service. Each bill, as soon as it is in- 
troduced, is referred by the presiding officer of the 
house in question to the appropriate committee. 
The committee hears every one who is interested 
in the defeat or passage of the bill and finally, after 



Making Law 



209 




Fig. 91. A hearing before a Congressional committee. This boy, on 
behalf of 60.000 school children, made a plea before the House Com- 
mittee of the District of Columbia for an appropriation to promote 
nature study in the Washington schools. 



careful consideration, votes to report or not to report 
it. If the committee does not report the bill, it 
goes no farther; if the committee does report the 
bill, it stands a good chance of passage by the house. 
The bill in the house. In aU our legislatures biUs 
are required to be "read three times." Before the 
practice of printing biUs became common, these 
readings were actual readings. The first reading takes 
place \Yhen the bill is introduced, and consists simply 
in reading its title. It is then without debate or vote 
referred to a committee. After it comes from the 
committee it is "read" a second time and voted 
upon. If there are enough votes to pass it, it is read 
a third tihie and voted on once more. In most state 



210 Loyal Citizenship 

legislatures the second and third readings are by title 
only. In the national House of Representatives the 
second reading is in full, clause by clause, for the 
purpose of debate and amendment. The third read- 
ing is by title, unless a member requests that the bill 
be read again in full. In the national House there is 
also a vote on final passage. 

The discussion which is given bills in legislative 
bodies is not very thorough. On some extremely 
important bills there will be a number of rather loud 
political speeches, but no member's opinion is likely 
to be influenced by them. Members of the state 
legislatures and of the national Congress make 
speeches not so much for one another as for the people 
who elect them. The real consideration of legislation 
takes place in committee. 

The veto. After a biU has passed through both 
houses, it is sent to the governor or President, as the 
case may be, for his signature. If he does not approve 
of the measure, he may send it back to the house in 
which it originated, stating his reasons for disap- 
proval. This is the veto. Once vetoed, a bill can be- 
come law only if it is passed over again, usually by a 
two- thirds vote (in some states by a three-fifths vote) . 
The signature of the chief executive wiU not be re- 
quired if a biU is passed over his veto. (In North 
Carolina the governor has no veto power.) Bills that 
reach the executive so close to the end of the session 
that he cannot send them back within the time 
allowed him for their consideration (ten days in the 
case of the President) he may kill, except in a few 



H. R. 2499. 



Making Law 

(WBLIC...,N0-^4 67* CONGRESS.) 



$Ddj-sehflitfr Congress irf i\t ®itiltb Stales fff Jmmca; 

^t the "gitst Session, 

Bens aad bdd «t the Chjr at Wuhioftoo on Vaoiay, the eleventh iMy of April, 
one thtnigixl nioe buDdnd and Mrenty-aae. 



AN ACT 



To jfffpvide for the atquisition by the United States of private right* of fishery 
in and about Pearl Harbor, Territory of Hawaii. 



Be it enacted by the Senale and Houae of Repretenlalivfj oj the United 
States oj America in Congress nssemhUd, That the SeeretAry of the Xavy is 
hereby authorized to examino and appraise the value ot lAe privately owned 
rights of fishery in Pearl Harbor, island of Oahu, Terrrtpry of Hawaii, from 
an imaginary line from Eaak Point to Beckoning Point, both within said 
harbor, to the seaward, and the privately owned rights of fishery in aorabout 
the entrance channel to said harbor, and to enter into negotiations for tho 
purchase of the said rights and, if in his Judgment the price for such rights is 
reasonable and satisfactory, to make contracts for the -purchase of same subject 
to future ratification and appropriation by Congress; or in tho event of tho 
inability of the Secretary of the Navy to make a satisfactory contract for tho 
voluntary purchase of the said nghts of fishery, he is hereby authorized and 
directed through tho Attorney General to institute and carry to completion 
proceedings for the condemnation of said rights of fishery, the acceptance of 
the award in said proceedings to be subject to the future ratification and 
appropriation by Congress. Such condemnation proceedings shall be instituted 
and conducted in, and jurisdiction of said proceedings is hereby given to, tho 
district court of the United States for the district of Hawaii, substantially ts 
provided in "An Act to authorize condemnation of land for sites for public 
buildings, and for other purposes," approved August 1, 1888; and the sum 
of $5,000 is hereby authorized to be appropriated, to be immediately and 
continuously available until expended, to pay the necessary costs thereof and 
expenses in connection therewith. The Secretary of the Navy is further 
'authorized and directed to report the proceedings hereunder to Congress. 



^eprttenlflioet. 




)/ the Smate. 



211 



Fig. 92. An act of Congress as it appears of record. Ob- 
serve the signatures of the Speaker of the House of 
Representatives and of the Vice President, which show 
that the bill passed each house, and the approval of the 
President, which finally made the biU law. 



212 Loyal Citizenship 

states, by simply neglecting to sign them. This is 
known as the pocket veto. In many states the 
governor has thirty days after the adjournment of the 
legislature, in which to make up his mind on bills. 
The veto power has in recent years been very much 
used both in national and state affairs. 

QUESTIONS 

What is a law? Describe the part courts play in making laws. 
What is meant by "law-making bodies"? How many houses are 
there in a state legislature? Is there any difference in their powers? 
in their influence? What was the United States Senate intended to 
represent? Why is the Senate more powerful than the House of 
Representatives? What difficulties does the large size of the House 
of Representatives present? How is a law proposed? Explain the 
importance of the committee system. How are committees appointed 
in state legislatures? in Congress? What is meant by the "three 
readings" of a bill? What is the veto? What is a pocket veto? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The personnel of legislative bodies. The teacher may assign to 
each member of the class the duty of examining the biography of a 
number of members of the legislature or of the Congress of the 
United States. Such biographies can be obtained from the Congres- 
sional Directory and from a similar book published in most states 
and obtainable from the secretary of state. The results may be 
tabulated so as to show the occupation, education, and previous 
political experience of the members of each body. 

The organization and procedure of the legislature of your own 
state and of the Congress of the United States may be divided into 
a number of topics. The use of the veto in your own state and in 
the national government are excellent topics. See Munro, W. B., 
Government of the United States; Kimball, Everett, The National 
Government of the United States; Beard, C. A., American Govern- 
ment and Politics; McCall, S. W., The Business of Congress; Reed, 
T. H., Form and Functions of American Government, Chapters 11, 
12, 21, and 22. Tables showing terms of state legislatures and 
salaries of members, etc., may be found in the World Almanac. 
See also the American Year Book. 



Making Law 



CIVIC ACTIVITIES 



213 



The class organization should now be turned into a legislative 
body. By using copies of bills, files, and journals, which can usually 
be obtained from the secretary of state at your state capital, the 
class can be made to grasp concretely what the text necessarily 
describes so generally. 

A \'isit to the state legislature, if it is in session, will be found to 
repay even a considerable journey. If such a \"isit is impracticable, 
do not forget that city councils, county boards, and boards of 
education are legislative bodies, and that their procedure is essen- 
tially the same as that of the larger bodies. A talk on legislative 
methods and procedure by a present or former member of the state 
legislature wiU be helpful. 



Fig. 93. The mace, the symbol 
of authority in the national 
House of Representatives. In 
the hands of the sergeant-at- 
arms of the House it indicates 
that he is prepared to use force 
to restore order. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-EIGHT 

Carrying Out the Law 

The executive. Laws of themselves are ineffec- 
tive. There must be some machinery for carrying 
them out. The courts interpret and apply the law; 
but the decisions of courts cannot be effective unless 
there is back of them the force of government. This 
force is commanded by the executive. The President of 
the United States is the commander-in-chief of our 
army and navy. Similarly, the governor of a state 
controls its militia. The management and direction 
of all the activities of government, from conducting a 
war down to cleaning our streets, is the work of the 
executive. 

The state executive. The principal state execu- 
tive is the governor. He is elected by the people and 
has a great deal of influence and prestige because, 
in the state government, he is the representative of the 
people as a whole. Several important branches of 
executive power, however, are not under his control 
at all but are directed by officers who are also elected 
by the people, such as the secretary of state, the state 
treasiu'er, the auditor or controller, and the attorney- 
general. 

Our states maintain a great many public institu- 
tions such as universities, normal schools, hospitals 
for the insane, prisons, and reformatories. They 
regulate public utilities, banks, insiu-ance companies, 
and building and loan associations; and in recent 
years they have undertaken, among other things, to 
promote agriculture and forestry, to study the prob- 

214 



Carrying Out the Law 



215 



JU6TICE5 0FTHE 
SUPREME COURT 



PEOPLE OF 
THE 5TATE 



sup'r OF 

PUBLIC 
INSTRUC'N 



TREASURER 



ALLDITOR OR 
CONTROLLER 



! MISCELLANEOUS 

ELECTIVE OFFICES 



UEUTENA^^• 
GOVERJMOR 



SECY OF 
STATE 



ATTORNEY 
GENERAL 



COVERNOPL 



SUP'T OF 
BANFC5 



^ 



SUP'T OF . CORPORATION 
INSURANCE ^ COMMISSIONER 



STATE 
ENGINEER- 



^ 



BOARD OF 
AGRICULTURE 



€^ ^K:^^ 



PUD UTIUTIE5 L INDU STRJAL 
COMMISSION ^ ACCIDENT COMM. 



BOARD OF 
HEALTH 



BOARD OF 
CONTROL 



ADJUTANT 
GENERAL 



HIGHWAY 
COMMISSION 



VETERIN- 
ARIAN 



SUP'T OF 
PRISONS 



^ 



COMM'R. 
OF LABOR 



SUPT.OFWT& 
& MEASURES 



, BOARD OF 
\ HOSPITAL A 



2^ 



REGENTS OF 
UNIVERSITY 



HORTICULT'L. 
COMMISSION 



TAX 
COMMISSION 



:5 



Br OF SCHOOL 
FOR BUND 



HOUSING 
COMMISSION 



<IMANY OTHERS UP TO A TOTAL OF ONE HUNDRED OR MORE 



PEOPLE OF 

THE STATE 



JUSTICES OF 

THE SUPREME 

COURT 



GOVERNOR. 



DEPARTMENT 
OF FINANCE; 
COiMTROLLER. 



DEPARTMENT 
OF CHARITIES 
(&CORRECTNS. 



LIEUTENANT 
GOVERNOR 




DEPARTMENT 
OF NATURAL 
RESOURCES 



DEPARTMENT 

OF 
COMMERCE 



DEPARTMENT 

OF 

HEALTH 



DEPARTMENT 

OF 

JUSTICE 



DEPARTMENT 

OF 

WORKS 



DEPARTMENT 

OF 

LABOR 



DEPARTMENT 

OF 
EDUCATION 



Figs. 94 and 95. State governinent as it is, and a suggestion for its 
organization in a more rational manner. 

lems of labor, and to provide pensions for mothers. 
The governor appoints and removes the heads of 
the hmidred or more departments and institutions 
(often with the advice and consent of the state 
senate). But the departments are so numerous that 



216 Loyal Citizenship 

he cannot really supervise them, and there are no 
officers who stand between the governor and the 
departments. Consequently, the executive side of 
state government is hke an army with a general and 
a lot of captains but with no majors, colonels, or 
staff officers between them (Figs. 94 and 95). 

The President — Electors. The chief executive of 
the United States is, of course, the President. He is 
elected by the people, not directly, but through 
electors who are voted for in each state. Each state 
has as many electors as it has Representatives and 
Senators in Congress. The electors exercise no free- 
dom of choice but are pledged in advance to vote for 
a particular candidate for President. Each party 
puts up a list of them, and practically every voter 
votes for the whole hst of his party. It has happened 
and may happen again that one candidate got a 
majority of the electoral votes while another got a 
majority of the popular vote. In 1888 Harrison was 
elected President, although Grover Cleveland had 
98,000 more popular votes. It is very much more 
important to carry New York by a thousand votes 
than it is to carry Vermont by fifty thousand. This 
has led poKtical parties usually to nominate their 
candidates for President from large "doubtful 
states" like New York and Ohio, where the parties 
are about equally divided. 

Election of a President. Candidates for the presi- 
dency are nominated by the great pohtical parties by 
means of national conventions. To these national 
conventions the members of the party in each state 



Carrying Out the Law 217 

send delegates. The delegates are selected either by 
conventions or, as in several states, by a presidential 
preference primary. They assemble in a great hall 
and nominate candidates for President and ^ ice- 
President and adopt a party platform (declaration of 
principles). Much more attention is paid to the 
declarations that are made by the candidate himself 
— his "speech of acceptance" and other addresses — 
than to the party platform. 

The period before a presidential election is always a 
time of great excitement ; pohtical meetings are held 
all over the country, and sometimes the struggle 
becomes yerj bitter. But when the result of the vot- 
ing has been announced, the defeated party at once 
settles down to wait for another chance four years 
later. There is something very fine in the good 
sportsmanship which is shown by the losing side in 
our elections. 

Powers of the President. The President is in fact 
as well as in name the head of the executive department 
of our national government. He does not divide his 
poAver with other elective officers as the governor 
does. Furthermore, the executive department is so 
organized as to give him effectiA^e control OAcr all its 
branches. Immediately beloAA' the President come 
the members of his Cabinet. Each of them is the 
head of one of the great departments into Avhich the 
work of administration is divided. These depart- 
ments are as folloAvs : State, Treasury, War, Justice, 
Post Office, NaA-^ , Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, 
and Labor. The President meets Avith the Cabinet 



218 



Loyal Citizenship 




Carrying Out the Law 219 

ever^" week for consultation regarding the poKcies 
of the government. BeloAY each Cabinet member 
come a series of divisions, biireaus, and offices so 
arranged as to give the President, through his Cab- 
inet officers, complete control. 

The President by his power of presenting messages 
to Congress and by his poAver of veto has a very large 
share in law-making. So long as his party has a major- 
ity in both houses, his prestige as the representative of 
all the people is so overwhelming that a vigorous 
President is able to guide the action of Congress. But 
when his party ceases to have control of either house 
of Congress, there is likely to be much bickering and 
little achievement. 

Position of the President. The President occu- 
pies the greatest position in the gift of the people of 
this country. He holds no coinrt as do kings. He 
dresses and hves like an ordinarv" American citizen, 
and when his term of office is over he shps back into 
the ranks of his fellow countrymen. Nevertheless, 
every good man and woman in the United States 
regards the President with a respect that is, if any- 
thing, greater than that shown to a king by his sub- 
jects. Even those who disagree with him most pay 
him the respect that is due his office as the representa- 
tive of the people. 

QUESTIONS 

\\Tiat department commands the force of government? Why is 
its help necessary to make com"t decisions effective? \Miat is the 
distinction between legislation and administration? What weak- 
nesses are there in the position of the governor as state executive? 
How would the short-ballot principle work if applied in the cases of 



220 Loyal Citizenship 

state officers other than governor? How is the President of the 
United States elected? What is the practical efTect of this system? 
What is a national convention? How does the losing side behave 
after an election? What makes the position of the President so very 
important? Say what you can of the organization of the executive 
side of the national government. What is the President's Cabinet? 
Explain the influence of the President over Congress. 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The National Convention of any party; a party platform; the 
presidential campaign; the biographies of any of our greater Presi- 
dents; relations of the President to Congress. A report on each of 
the executive departments of your state government or of the 
national government will be very helpful. 

On conventions and other matters relating to presidential elections 
see MuNRO, W. B., Government of the United States; Beard, C. A., 
American Government and Politics; Bryce, James, The American 
Commonwealth; Ray, P. 0., Introduction to Political Parties and 
Practical Politics; Johnston, Alexander, American Politics. On 
the powers of the President, in addition to Munro, Beard, and 
Bryce, see Haskin, F. J., The American Government; Taft, Wm. H., 
Our Chief Magistrate and His Powers and The Presidency: Its Duties, 
Its Powers, Its Opportunities, and Its Limitations. On the executive 
departments of the national government see Haskin, F. J., The 
American Government; and Cyclopsedia of American Government 
(consult under name of each department). On the governor and 
state administration, besides Beard, Munro, and Bryce, see Reinsch, 
P. S., Readings on American State Government, and Reed, T. H., 
Government for the People. On all these subjects more extensive 
reading suggestions may be found in Reed's Form, and Functions of 
American Government. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Appoint a committee to introduce in the class, organized as a 
legislative body, a proposal for a brief amendment to the state 
constitution. Let the amendment provide for the grouping of the 
various executive departments, the head of each department to be a 
Cabinet member under the governor. Let the committee prepare 
charts of the organization of the state executive as existing and as 
reorganized under the proposed amendment. 



CHAPTER TWENTY-NINE 
Interpreting and Applying the Law 

Courts. Our Constitution, as we have seen, care- 
fully distinguishes and separates legislative, execu- 
tive, and judicial power. An early king, however, 
was legislator, executive, and judge. His decree be- 
came a part of the law; he commanded the soldiers 
through whom law was enforced; and he sat in the 
gateway of his city or palace to apply it — to settle 
disputes and to order the punishment of offenders. 

WTien a king's duties as judge came to be burden- 
some, he appointed lesser judges to hear all but the 
greatest cases. Then a system of courts developed in 
place of the single court of the king. Bift men were 
allowed, under proper circumstances, to appeal from 
the decision of a minor judge to a higher judge, and 
finally to the king. Courts are so arranged today. 

Civil and criminal cases. Often there is a dispute 
between individuals concerning their rights under 
the law or concerning the facts that affect their rights. 
Either of the parties may bring the dispute into 
court for settlement. The court hears the plaintiff 
or "complainant" and the defendant, and their wit- 
nesses. It then decides which party is right under the 
law and gives or refuses to give the damages or other 
relief asked for. Such cases are known as civil cases. 

Persons charged with crime are also brought before 
the courts, and they are there given fair trials. If a 
court finds them guilty, it fixes punishment in 
accordance with law; if it finds them innocent, it sets 
them free. Such cases are known as criminal cases. 

221 



222 Loyal Citizenship 

Rights which the law protects. There are three 
great rights which the law and the courts must pro- 
tect. The first is the right of personal safety. If any 
one does you bodily injury, either intentionally or 
carelessly, you can demand payment for damages 
from him. The second is the right of property. If 
any one by force or fraud, or even by mistake, takes 
or injures your land or your goods, or in any other 
way causes you to suffer personal injiu-y in a right 
that has money value, you may bring an action in 
court for the payment of money damages or for the 
restoration of particular property. 

The third right that the courts will enforce is the 
right of contract. If any one in return for some valu- 
able article or service that you have given him 
promises to give something to you or do something 
for your benefit, you can recover the amount of the 
damage that his failm-e to keep the contract causes 
you. But that is not all. The courts will, in a proper 
case, make a party actually do what in justice he ought 
to do. 

Crimes and their punishment. There are acts 
that are regarded as offenses against the community 
itself, even though they are directed against indi- 
viduals. Murder, robbery, counterfeiting, and ar- 
son, if unchecked, would reduce the country to ruin. 
Therefore the law provides severe punishments for 
such acts (crimes). It wiU not allow the injured 
party or his family or friends to let a criminal off by 
forgiving him. Such matters are not private affairs. 
The community's interest comes first. 



Interpreting and Applying Law 223 




Fig. 97. A courtroom scene. The young woman seated at the table 
is being tried on a criminal charge. 

Sometimes, >Yhen a shocking crime has taken place, 
a mob lynches the person suspected of committing it. 
Lynching is mm'der. It murders not only its human 
victim but the law itself. The principle that no one 
can be punished for a crime except after a fair trial 
is one of the fundamentals of American liberty. 

Trial courts. In each state there is a system of 
courts for the trial of civil and criminal cases of ever^' 
description. These systems of courts differ somewhat 
in details. In most states each town or township has 
a justice court presided over by a justice of the peace 
elected by the people. This court has power to tr^' 
civil cases invohdng not more than a fcAv hundred 
doUars and the less serious criminal cases known as 
misdemeanors. A person dissatisfied with the deci- 



224 Loyal Citizenship 

sion in a justice court may question this decision 
before a higher court (appeal his case). 

For the trial of the more important civil and crim- 
inal cases there is in some states a court for each 
county. In several states the district may be larger 
than a single county. In a few states, like New 
York, there is one court for the county and one for a 
larger district, the most important cases being re- 
served for the latter. 

The jury. Every person accused of crime is en- 
titled to trial by jury, and in most civil cases juries 
are employed. 

In securing a jury, a hst of persons (panel) is sum- 
moned to appear at the time set for the trial. From 
their number twelve are selected by lot. Either 
party to a case can cause the rejection of a person 
so selected by showing that he might not be fair- 
minded. Either party can also reject a number of 
jurors without giving any reason. It is the duty 
of the jury, after listening to the evidence, to decide 
the facts of a case. The judge instructs the jury 
on the law of the case. In criminal cases the deci- 
sion must be unanimous. Several states now provide 
for decision of civil cases by less than a unanimous 
vote, — usually three fourths, — and one or two states 
provide for an alternate juror to take the place of one 
of the twelve jurors should one fall ill. 

Jury duty is not very pleasant, and some cases take 
a long time to try. In a great murder case the jury 
may be kept together, with no chance to go home, for 
several weeks. Many of the really intelligent, busy 



Interpreting and Applying Law 225 

people of the community manage to get excused from 
jury duty. If this duty is left to idle, uneducated 
people, the jury system becomes very unsatisfactory. 
It must, however, be maintained, because it is one of 
our chief safeguards against possible tyranny. Few 
duties of the citizen are more important than jury duty. 

Judges. Judges are usually elected by the people, 
but in some states they are appointed by the gov- 
ernor. Except for justices of the peace, they are 
always lawyers. They are almost always honest and 
fair-minded men, who feel keenly the sacredness of 
their duty. There is a good deal of difference of opin- 
ion as to whether they should be elected or appointed. It 
is generally admitted that the salaries of trial judges 
are too low. Long terms and good salaries help to 
make judgeships attractive to good lawyers. 

Lawyers and trials. Our system of trying cases 
would not work at all without la^\^ers. They are, of 
course, paid by the parties whom they represent, but 
they are, nevertheless, really officers of the court. A 
trial is a kind of debate between the plaintiff and the 
defendant or between the state and the accused. 
Each side is supposed to try, honorably, to present its 
case in the most favorable light. The attorney for the 
plaintiff or the district attorney opens the trial with 
a statement of the case of his chent. He then calls 
the witnesses for his side. Witnesses can testify only 
in answer to questions. When the attorney for the 
plaintiff has finished questioning each of his wit- 
nesses, the attorney for the defendant "cross-exam- 
ines" him. A clever cross-examiner can make it very 



226 Loyal Citizenship 

uncomfortable for a witness who tries to conceal the 
truth. When the witnesses for the plaintiff have all 
been examined, the attorney for the defendant states 
his case and calls his witnesses. When he is through, 
the attorney on each side argues his case to the jury. 
Out of this contest comes the truth. A criminal case 
is conducted much the same as a civil case, the pubhc 
being regarded as the plaintiff. 

Many a case that gets into court might have been 
settled between the parties themselves, if either one 
or both of them had been well advised. A large part 
of the work of lawyers consists in advising their cli- 
ents how to keep out of court. The lawyer's profession 
is a very noble one if he wishes to make it so. 

The grand jury. When a person is arrested for a 
serious crime, he is first "arraigned" before a justice 
of the peace (or police judge), who if he believes there 
is sufficient evidence to justify the charge sends the 
accused back to jail. Except in murder cases the 
accused may be released on bail. This consists of 
money or of a bond made seciu^e by the signatm^es of 
men of property. A bond provides that a specified 
sum of money will be forfeited to the state if the 
accused does not appear when wanted. The evidence 
against him is then, in most states, presented to the 
grand jury for preliminary investigation. This body 
consists of from twelve to twenty-three persons more 
carefully selected than trial jm'ors ordinarily are. If 
the grand jury beheves there is probable cause of 
guilt, it returns a true bill or indictment. It also 
investigates on its own initiative any matter within 



Interpreting and Applying Law ' 227 

the county about which there is a suggestion of 
crime. Particularly, the grand jury goes over the 
work of all county and other public officers, and if it 
fmds anything wrong calls attention to the matter in 
its report. If there has been grafting, it indicts the 
guilty official. The grand jury, therefore, is a very 
important means of preventing bad government. 

In some states the district attorney decides whether 
or not to prosecute without action by a grand jury. 

Courts of appeal. There is in each state a highest 
court, which is usually known as the supreme court, 
though it is sometimes called the "court of errors" 
or the "appellate court." This court hgs the last 
word on all questions of law that are made the subject 
of appeal from the decisions of lower courts. (The 
facts are finally settled in the lower courts.) Some- 
times there are lesser courts of appeal between the 
trial court and the highest state court. Courts of 
appeal consist of several judges, all of whom may 
take part in rendering the decision. Supreme-court 
and other appellate judges are usually elected by 
the people, but the terms are long and reelection 
is very common. The position of a supreme-court 
judge is a very dignified and honorable one. 

The Federal courts. The Constitution and laws 
of the United States being the supreme law of the 
land, it is the duty of state courts to apply them in 
every case where they are involved. The United 
States, however, does not depend entirely upon the 
state courts. Any case arising under the Constitu- 
tion, laws, or treaties of the United States may be 



228 



Loyal Citizenship 




Interpreting and Applying Law ' 229 

begun in the Federal courts by the plaintiff, as may 
any case between citizens of different states; or the 
defendant may have any such case transferred from a 
state court to the proper Federal court. Admiralty 
cases — that is, cases involving navigation — are al- 
ways tried in the Federal courts. 

The lowest United States court is known as the 
district court. It is the trial court for practically 
all Federal cases. There is at least one such court 
in each state. For each United States district court 
there is a district judge (or more than one) , a district 
attorney, and a United States marshal. The latter 
is an officer corresponding to the sheriff. 

Above the district court comes the United States 
circuit court of appeals, and its decision is final in all 
cases except those involving extremely important 
matters. (There are nine United States circuit courts 
of appeals.) 

The Supreme Court of the United States stands at 
the head df the judicial branch of our government. 
It consists of a chief justice and eight associate 
justices. It is our highest court of appeals, and it 
has the final word in every case whose settlement 
requires an interpretation of the Constitution of the 
United States. 

The judges of all United States courts are ap- 
pointed by the President for life and, hke the Presi- 
dent, can be removed only on impeachment and con- 
viction. An impeachment is begun by resolution 
of the House of Representatives, and trial takes 
place before the Senate. 



230 Loyal Citizenship 

The Supreme Court and the Constitution. The 
Supreme Court is the chief guardian of the Constitu- 
tion of the United States. It has repeatedly held 
that an act of Congress in violation of the Constitu- 
tion simply did not become law. It does not hesi- 
tate to declare provisions of state constitutions or 
state statutes void if they conflict with the Constitu- 
tion. If a state court upholds a state law as against 
the Constitution, an appeal may be taken to the 
Supreme Court. Furthermore, the Supreme Court 
exercises the power to compel a state court to transfer 
to it any case involving the Constitution. There is, 
therefore, no danger that the Constitution of the 
United States may mean one thing in one state and 
another in another, or that the local sentiment of a 
state may affect the interpretation of the national 
Constitution. Such a power as is possessed by the 
Supreme Court is absolutely necessary to safeguard the 
Constitution and to prevent the confusion that would 
arise through conflicting decisions in the courts of dif- 
ferent states. 

Respect for law. We have already seen that obe- 
dience to law is one of the principal duties of a citi- 
zen. Respect for the law and for the courts which 
apply it is absolutely necessary to the peace and good 
order of our country. If laws are bad, they should be 
repealed or amended. If judges are corrupt, they 
should be replaced by honest men. The means for 
doing this is in the hands of the people. The final 
responsibility for bad laws or bad judges rests with 
them. 



Interpreting and Applying Law 231 

QUESTIONS 

Explain the importance of ha\"ing courts. AYliat is the difference 
between a civil and a criminal case? ^Miat three great rights does 
the law protect? What remedies do the courts give for injury to 
these rights? What is a crime? Why does the law punish criminals? 
WTiy is lynching murder? \Miat is its effect upon law? \Miat is a 
jury? WTiat is the part of the judge in a trial? How are state judges 
chosen? Explain the part of the lawyer at a trial. Describe the 
duties of the grand jury. What are courts of appeal? Why does the 
United States have courts separate from those of the states? Name 
the Federal courts. How do Federal judges obtain their positions, 
and for what period may they hold them? Explain the relation of the 
United States Supreme Court to the Constitution. State why respect 
for law is so important. 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The judicial organization of your own state shoulcM^e the subject 
of several topics. See Beard, C. A., American Government and 
Politics; AIuxRO, \S . B., The Government of the United States; 
Reinsch, p. S., Readings on American State Government; Bryce, 
James, The American Commonwealth; Wilson, Woodrow, Constitu- 
tional government in the United States; Reed, T, H., Form and 
Functions of American Government, Chapter 13. 

On the actual working of trials see Wellman, F. L., The Art of 
Cross Examination and A Day in Court; Train, Arthur, Courts, 
Criminals, and the Camorra. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Visit a court actually engaged in trying a case. A mock trial in 
which the essential features of court procedure are observed will be 
interesting and profitable. It will not be difficult to get the assistance 
of a lawyer, whom some member of the class may know, to act as 
ad\iser in planning the trial. 



CHAPTER THIRTY 

Territories and Dependencies — ^The 
District of Columbia 

The Ordinance of 1787. The United States has 
always had under its control lands and peoples not 
comprised within the limits of any state. The first 
territory to be organized was the Northwest Terri- 
tory, lying west of the Alleghenies and north of the 
Ohio River. The Congress of the Confederation in 
1787 passed an Ordinance for the government of this 
territory, which has been a model for territorial 
government ever since. This ordinance provided 
that the territory should have a governor, a secre- 
tary, and three judges, to be appointed by the central 
government ; also that as soon as the population had 
increased sufficiently there should be estabhshed an 
elective territorial legislature. It further guaranteed 
to the people of the territory religious freedom, the 
privilege of habeas corpus, and trial by jury. 

Attitude toward territorial government. For 
nearly a century, as our people pushed westward, 
territory after territory was organized. Only two of 
the Western states, Texas and California, came into 
the Union without having been organized as terri- 
tories. Territorial government was regarded merely as 
a preparation for statehood, and for this reason the 
people were willing to submit to a government in 
which their governor and judges were appointed by 
the President. Of course, in territories that had been 
organized for any length of time the people chose 
their own legislatures. The entire area of the United 

232 



Territories and Dependencies 233 

States on the continent of North America, except 
Alaska, has now been made into states. 

Later expansion. It is only since the purchase of 
Alaska in 1867 that the Lnited States has come to 
exercise authority over distant lands. Hawaii Avas 
amiexed in 1898. Alaska and Hawaii are governed 
as territories. As a result of the war with Spain the 
United States acquired Porto Rico, the Philippines, 
and Guam. In 1900 we obtained possession of 
Tutuila, one of the Samoan Islands. In 1904 the 
Canal Zone became essentially a part of the United 
States. In 1914 we bought the Virgin Islands from 
Deimiark, the people A^oting in favor of the change in 
sovereignty. 

Porto Rico. In Porto Rico the governor is ap- 
pointed hy the President, and he in turn appoints 
the heads of most of the executive departments. 
The two houses of the legislature are elected by the 
people. The governor has a veto which may be 
overcome by a tAvo-t birds vote of both houses. All 
laws passed over his veto must be submitted to 
Washington, where the President has the power to 
amiul them. The people of Porto Rico elect one 
detegate to our House of Representatives, who, 
however, has no vote. In 1898 practically aU the 
people of Porto Rico spoke Spanish. The American 
government has installed a splendid system of pubhc 
schools for the island, and its peopte are being trained 
in the English tanguage and in democratic ideas, and 
are being prepared to take charge of their own govern- 
ment. 



234 



Loyal Citizenship 




Territories and Dependencies 235 

Philippine Islands. The PhiKppine Islands are a 
very large archipelago inhabited by a number of 
nearly related groups of Malayan people. In the 
Phihppines, as in Porto Rico, the greatest achieve- 
ment under the American government has been the 
establishment of an admirable system of schools. 
We have recognized that there is no way in which a 
people can be prepared for freedom so weU as by 
education. In the Philippines there is a governor- 
general appointed by the President. He appoints 
the heads of the executive departments (except the 
Insular auditor, who is appointed by the President). 
The governor-general possesses a veto power which 
the legislature cannot override without the approval 
of the President. The senate consists of twenty-four 
members elected by the people and two (from non- 
Christian districts) appointed by the governor- 
general. The lower house is made up of eighty-one 
elected and nine appointed members. Two delegates 
from the Philippines, without votes, sit in the House 
of Representatives at Washington. The actual 
direction of affairs in the Philippines has latterly 
rested largely with a Council of State consistiag of 
the heads of departments and the presiding officers 
of the two houses. They are aU Fihpinos and belong 
to the majority party in the legislature. In this 
way the people have been given a form of self- 
government. 

In Tutuila the government is in the hands of a 
naval officer appointed by the Secretary of the Navy. 
The same system exists in Guam and in several 



236 



Loyal Citizenship 




U. S, N. Official Photograph 

Fig. 100. The naval governor of Samoa, and some of the people 
over whom he rules in the name of the United States. 



very small islands that we hold in the Pacific. The 
Virgin Islands also are under the care of the Navy 
Department. 

Among the important questions before the Ameri- 
can people today are those concerning the disposition 
of some of our dependencies, particularly of the 
Philippines. Our government is founded upon the 
idea that governments derive their just powers from 
the consent of the governed. Hoav can it, then, 
consistently rule over subject peoples? Such depen- 
dencies, however, came to us in a way that did not 
permit us to avoid caring for them. To turn them 
adrift before they were prepared to govern themselves 
would be to shirk our clear duty. 



The District of Columbia 237 

The District of Columbia. The founders of our 
govermnent thought that it would be unwise for the 
capital of the United States to be within the territory of 
any state. They, therefore, provided in the Con- 
stitution for a Federal district in which there should 
be no authority except that of the United States. 
This district was created by the cession from Virginia 
and Maryland of a piece of territory ten miles square 
lying on both banks of the Potomac. The lower 
portion of the original district was afterward given 
back to Virginia, so that the present District of 
Columbia represents only the cession from Maryland. 
Its laws are made and its taxes are levied by Congress 
itself. The carrying out of these laws is left to a 
commission of three members appointed by the Presi- 
dent, each of whom has charge of a group of depart- 
ments of the government. The people living within 
the District have no voice in even their local affairs 
and cannot vote for President of the United States 
or for members of Congress. They are not satisfied 
with this situation, and there is a movement on foot 
to have it remedied. 

QUESTIONS 

^yhat was the Northwest Territory? Tell about the Ordinance of 
1787. What is the difference between the old expansion of the 
United States and the expansion since 1867? \Yhat form of govern- 
ment have Alaska and Hawaii? Describe the government of Porto 
Rico. Describe the government of the Philippine Islands. How 
are Guam, the Virgin Islands, and Tutuila governed? ^^hy is the 
question of the disposition of some of our dependencies a difficult 
one? How was the District of Columbia formed? Describe its 
government. 



238 Loyal Citizenship 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Your own state's history before it became a state. The several 
dependencies: their geography, people, history, and government. 
There is a dearth of up-to-date books on the government of our 
dependencies, but there is a good deal of magazine literature on the 
subject. See Kimball, Everett, The National Government of the 
United States; Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of American 
Government, Chapter 26. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

The following subject will be an excellent one for debate in your 
legislatively organized class : Resolved, That the United States should 
within one year grant complete independence to the Philippine 
Islands. 



PART FIVE 

SOME PROBLEMS OF LARGER CITIZENSHIP 

Cooperation for the Common Good 



My city and country, so far as I am 
Antoninus, is Rome, but so far as I am a 
man, it is the world. 

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus 



CHAPTER THIRTY-OXE 

Problems of Labor 

The marketability of labor. If a fanner vrith a 
thousand bushels of Avheat to sell cannot get what 
he considers a fair price for it, he may hold it for a 
better market. If he sells liis Avheat six weeks later, 
even for the price originally offered, his loss will be 
but sHght: there will be the loss of interest for six 
weeks, and perhaps a httle shrinkage in the grain. 
A worker, however, Avho holds back his labor suffers 
a total loss of wages. Labor not used can never be 
recovered, and few workers have money savings 
that avlU enable them to remain long ^pemployed 
without suffering. Consequently, the individual 
worker cannot bargain with an employer for wages 
as a trader can bargain with his customers. Lnless 
there is an actual shortage of the kind of labor 
he can perform, the laborer must — in a free labor 
market — accept the terms that are offered him. 
This is peculiarly true of the least skilled workers. 
The individual worker in a shoe factor^^ who is 
trained only to fasten on heels is helpless, because 
there are relatively few places that demand his 
special services. 

Unions. The weakness of workers in bargaining 
as individuals has led to the formation of "unions" 
through Avhich workers may bargain collectively 
or as a unit. It makes httle difference to a large 
employer if a single Avorker quits because the Avages, 
hours, or Avorking conditions do not satisfy him. 
If, hoAveA^er, all his employees quit at once, it is a 

241 



242 Loyal Citizenship 

different matter. He may have orders to fill which 
if not filled will mean great loss, perhaps ruin, 
to him. He may have on hand partly worked or 
perishable materials which will be wasted if the 
factory must shut down. Such concerted quitting 
is called a strike, and it is the commonest weapon of 
organized labor. 

The earliest unions were associations of men of the 
same craft or trade. Such associations are still the 
usual form of union in the United States. The local 
unions in each trade are united with all the other 
locals in the same trade in great national organiza- 
tions like the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers. 
All the unions in a city usually are represented in a 
central labor council which looks out for common 
union interests in the city. Most of the trades are 
united in the American Federation of Labor, or, 
like the railway brotherhoods, work in harmony 
with it. 

Some progress has been made in recent years in 
organizing all workers, especially the unskilled, in 
unions for each industry irrespective of the trade or 
kind of work of each man. These industrial unions 
are much more radical than the trades unions. 
They are not generally affihated with the American 
Federation of Labor. Most radical is the movement 
which proposes to organize all workers in "one big 
union." Its object is the overthrow of our govern- 
ment and social order by a general strike or other 
violent means. 

Unions and labor monopoly. The trades unions 



Problems of Labor 



243 




Cartoon by J. N. Darling 

Fig. 101. When capital and labor quarrel both suffer, 
and so does the whole community. 

are always trying to get a monopoly of the supply 
of labor in their respective trades. To this end they 
sometimes limit the number of apprentices (boys 
who are to learn the trade), and they often demand 
that none but union men be employed in their trade. 
When they succeed in excluding non-union men al- 
together, we speak of the trade as one in which 
closed shop conditions exist. Many employers deny 
the right of the unions to insist upon the closed 
shop. They say that employers have the right to hire 
whom they please and that a worker has a right to 



244 Loyal Citizenship 

join a union or not as he pleases. This is perfectly 
true and is in entire accordance with the principles 
of liberty we have discussed before. On the other 
hand, the union man has an undoubted right to refuse 
to work in the same shop with non-union men. This 
problem, like many others, cannot he solved by in- 
sistence on rights. It can only be worked out in a 
spirit of cooperation for the common good (Fig. 101). 

Keeping up production. The purpose of the part- 
nership of labor and capital is production. This 
fundamental fact should never be lost sight of in 
considering the labor problem. With the efforts of 
organized labor to get good wages, reasonable hours 
of work, and wholesome and sanitary surroundings, 
every one should sympathize. All these things 
should aid rather than hinder production. Better 
living conditions for workers promote health, educa- 
tion, and greater efficiency. 

Unions sometimes make rules to limit the amount 
of work a man shall do in a day. Their usual expla- 
nation for such action is that the employer is trying 
to force work at a speed injurious to the worker — 
a wrong that sometimes exists. Occasionally, how- 
ever, the limit placed by the union rule is far below 
what a normal man might weU be able to do. Further, 
by defending lazy and incapable union men from 
discharge, the unions sometimes encourage slack 
work. That is not playing fair. Furthermore, the 
workers themselves cannot escape the effects of 
under-production and the high prices that it neces- 
sarily causes. There are not nearly enough good 



Problems of Labor 245 

things produced to meet the wants of all of us. Of 
the total of good things that are produced, the workers, 
as a whole, get by far the larger share. Increased 
production, then, means greater comfort for all, and 
especially for the workers. 

Government and labor disputes. The duty of 
government with regard to a dispute among its 
people is to keep the peace and to prevent a resort to 
violence or any unfair practice by either party. In the 
case of disputes between capital and labor, it has 
not been very successful in fulfilling that duty. 
Actual violence is usually checked before it has been 
carried very far. If the municipal or county authori- 
ties cannot keep order, the governor may send state 
troops, and if these fail. United States troops may 
be brought in. The law in many states forbids 
strikers from picketing — that is, posting men or 
women about a factory or store to remonstrate with 
workers or customers who are on the way in. In 
every state an agreement by union men not to buy 
the goods of a particular manufactm^er or merchant — 
the boycott — ^is illegal. 

Such negative interference with labor disputes 
has done httle to lessen their nmnber or bitterness; 
rather the contrary, because the interference usually 
lessens the chance of success of the union men and, 
as a result, arouses their resentment. Suppose your 
father and a neighbor had a dispute over the loca- 
tion of a fence between their two places. They 
would not be allowed to fight it out on the front 
lawn, but the law would permit them to be heard in 



246 Loyal Citizenship 

court and to have a just decision. Because there is 
provision for setthng disputes between individuals, 
there is much less temptation for them to break the 
peace. Just so, some more practicable means of 
settling disputes between the groups of labor and 
capital will have to be worked out, before we can 
effectively protect the public from the deplorable 
results of their quarreling. The most interesting 
attempt in this direction has been in Kansas, where 
the law requires that labor disputes be submitted to 
an Industrial Court. 

Child labor. Every one recognizes that the pro- 
tection of the law should in justice be thrown around 
those who cannot protect themselves. Chief among 
these are the children. There is a further reason for 
protecting them in the fact that their health, educa- 
tion, and character determine the future of our 
country. It does not hurt children to work; in fact, 
children who have some regular work outside of 
school hours are the better for it. But keeping a 
child at hard or confining work during many hours 
a day is destructive of his health and interferes 
seriously with his chance to get an education. Many 
states have adopted laws that forbid the labor of children 
in factories, shops, mines, and stores until they are old 
enough at least to have finished grammar school. 
Such laws should exist in all states. 

Other labor legislation. For the further protec- 
tion of women and children in industry, most of our 
states have enacted laws limiting their hours of labor, 
providing for the establishment of a minimum wage. 



Problems of Labor 



247 




Edicin Marcd 



Xew York Times 



Fig. 102. 



In spite of obstacles, there is a growing tendency toward 
mutual respect between capital and labor. 



and prescribing sanitar}' regulations for places of 
enlplo^TQent. Laws have also been passed fixing 
the time and method for payment of wages, requiring 
safety appliances to be used about machinen', and 
protecting workers in general. Labor legislation 
should be carefully plemned and worked out so as to 
protect the worker and at the same time preserve, 
as far as possible, the liberty of the employer. 

Workmen's compensation. Accidents are bound 
to occur in the conduct of any industry, their number 
varNdng with the nature of the industry" itself. Some 
industries have few accidents; but others, like 
raihoading and the building of steel skyscrapers, 



248 Loyal Citizenship 

have a great many. Formerly, if an employee were 
injured he could recover from his employer only by 
an action at law in which he had to prove the em- 
ployer's fault and the absence of fault on his own 
part. Now, in many of our states the employer 
must pay compensation in a moderate amount 
irrespective of the fault of the parties. There is 
also a Federal Employers' Liability Law providing 
compensation on account of accidents to employees 
of interstate railroads. Such laws have been enacted 
because it is considered that the injuries are incident 
to the industry, and that the employer ought to 
care for broken lives as well as replace broken 
machinery. Employers were at first bitterly opposed 
to the establishment of workmen's compensation, 
but they now generally accept it as reasonable and 
just. 

QUESTIONS 

What becomes of unused labor? What effect would a reserve of 
savings have upon the position of a worker bargaining to get the 
best pay for his labor? Can you give examples? How do unions 
assist workers in bargaining? W^hat are trades unions? How are 
they organized? What is the American Federation of Labor? What 
are industrial unions? How do unions seek to increase their mono- 
poly of labor? What is the closed shop? What is the employer's 
argument against it? What are the rights involved? What is the 
object to which the united efforts of labor and capital should be 
directed? What effects may higher wages and shorter hours have? 
What can be said in favor of setting a low limit on what a worker may 
do? What can be said against it? In what ways does government 
interfere in disputes between labor and capital? What has such 
interference accomplished? Under what conditions is work bad for 
children? What are the results? What is done to regulate or prevent 
child labor? What other laws for the benefit of women and children 



Problems of Labor 249 

workers can you mention? for workers in general? ^^ hat is the duty 
of government in the matter of labor legislation? Explain "work- 
men's compensation." 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The child-labor and other labor laws of your own state, and the 
authorities specially charged with carrying them out. 

Reports may be profitably made on the history of local strikes or 
on the organization of the central labor council of your city. Inter- 
^dews with imion leaders and employers on the closed or the open 
shop and on hmitation of output will prove interesting. 

See Ely ajn^d \N icker and other standard economics texts; Bogart, 
E. L., The Economic History of the United States; CoicnoNS and 
Ajvdrews. Principles of Labor Legislation: ^Mitchell, John, 
Organized Labor; Be.^jud, C. A., American Government and Politics; 
Carlton, T. T., History and Problems of Organized Labor; Reed, 
T. H., Form and Functions of American Government, fphapter 37. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

A visit to a meeting of the central labor council of your city. A 
debate on the Closed or the Open Shop, on Compulsory Arbitration, 
or on the Kansas Industrial Coiirt. Addresses on succeeding days 
by a labor-union official and an employer (care should be exercised 
to select moderate men). 



CHAPTER THIRTY-TWO 

The Care of Delinquents and Defectives 

Public charges. One of the most burdensome 
duties of government, local, state, and Federal, is 
that of caring for criminal, feeble-minded, insane, 
and otherwise helpless or defective individuals. Here 
are people who will not or cannot help to carry the 
load of life, but themselves have to be carried. 
Many of them if unrestrained would be very danger- 
ous to the rest of us. Socially speaking, criminality, 
feeble-mindedness, and insanity are all the result of 
the same causes. Drink, immorality, bad food, and 
bad living conditions produce diseases of mind and 
body. A powerful factor in accounting for delinquency 
is bad heredity. 

Criminals. Most persons who commit crime do so 
because they have not the intelligence or strength 
of will to conduct themselves as they should. Never- 
theless, it is necessary for the protection of the 
community that crime be punished. The fear of 
punishment has a wholesome effect in keeping 
criminally disposed people from breaking the law. 
There is, however, no more reason for feeling revenge- 
ful toward criminals than toward insane persons; 
both are defective. We should keep habitual crim- 
inals in prison in order that they may not harm law- 
abiding citizens. Those who seem capable of reform 
should be given another chance in life; but their 
punishment should be sufficient to serve as a warn- 
ing to others who may be tempted to break the 
law. 

250 



Care of Delinquents and Defectives 251 

Prisons and reformatories. Only a few years ago 
all persons convicted of serious crimes were sent to 
prison, irrespective of age or other condition. There 
the young and comparatively innocent were cor- 
rupted by having to associate with hardened crim- 
inals. Now only adult wrongdoers go to prison. 
Yoimg persons are sent to reformatories or "reform 
schools." In some states such adult offenders as are 
not confirmed criminals are sent to special institu- 
tions. But even the best of our reformatories often 
prove to be schools of crime. 

Probation. Wise judges, therefore, hesitate to 
send any one to a prison or reformatory except as a 
last resort. If there is a chance that a convicted 
person will do what is right in the future, they will, 
in many cases, admit him to probation. He then 
has to report frequently to the judge or to a proba- 
tion officer and follow the directions given him. 
The home of the offender and the conditions under 
which he works are studied and, if possible, improved. 
By wise guidance the life of an entire family may be 
readjusted. It costs about ten times as much to 
send a man to prison for a year as to put him on 
probation for the same time. If he has a family, he 
can go on earning the family Hving instead of leaving 
his dependents to be supported by charity. 

Juvenile courts. Children sometimes commit 
petty crimes more through mistake than through 
mahce, and in such cases it is cruel to brand them as 
criminals or to make them associate with criminals. 
Therefore special juvenile courts have been created. 



252 



Loyal Citizenship 




Fig. 103. Judge Lindsey holding court. Boys have found in the 
Judge a trusting and trustworthy friend. Even when he finds it 
necessary to order a boy to the industrial school at Golden, Colorado, 
the Judge sends him unattended. Very few boys have betrayed this 
trust. 

A child, if arrested, is not confined in jail but in a 
detention home. He meets the judge in his office, 
not in a crowded courtroom; and the judge tries to 
help him, not to punish him. A few boys and girls 
do not appreciate kind treatment, but most of them 
do. They will be fair with the judge who is fair with 
them Judge Ben Lindsey of Denver, through long 
experience, has proved that this is true. 

The care of the insane. Less than a hundred years 
ago insane people were chained to the walls of mad- 
houses and treated with great cruelty. But in 
modern hospitals for the insane there are no chains. 



Care of Delinquents and Defectives 253 

There are carpets on the floors and curtains at the 
windows. The patients, except a few that are 
violent, go about much as they please. There is 
regular work for all who are capable of it. Scientific 
medical treatment is given those who need it. Base- 
ball teams, bands, theatricals, and dances help to 
cheer the lot of the inmates. Everything is done to 
make their surroundings agreeable. ^Vlany get well 
under such circumstances. The treatment of the 
insane is not alw ays as kindly and successful as it 
should be, but immense progress is being made. 

The feeble-minded. There are many grades of 
feeble-mindedness. For the completely idiotic there 
is nothing to do but to keep them as humanely as 
possible. For those of more inteUigence, especially 
the highest class of feeble-minded called morons, a 
great deal can be done. By getting them out of 
the ordinary schools and by patiently teaching them, 
they can be made useful and even self-supporting. 
It would be much cheaper for the state to provide 
supervision and work for them, as on farm colonies, 
than to care for them as criminals and paupers. 
Few states have so far aw akened to that fact. 

The deaf, dumb, and blind. Schools and other 
institutions for the deaf, dumb, and blind are main- 
tained by most states. The effort is to giA-e each 
affHcted child a training that will make him self- 
supporting. Similar work is being done for disabled 
soldiers by the national government. Such educa- 
tional work is worth far more than most so-called 
charity. 



254 Loyal Citizenship 

QUESTIONS 

What classes are a burden to society? How can you justify 
punishing criminals? What persons are sent to state prisons? to 
reformatories? Explain the probation system. What are the 
advantages of the juvenile court? TeU about the new and the old 
methods of dealing with the insane. Can anything be done for the 
feeble-minded? Explain how they should be treated. What does 
the state do for the deaf, dumb, and blind? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The institutions of your own state and locality should be studied 
to complete the story which the text only outlines. See Beard, 
C. A., American Government and Politics and American City Govern- 
ment; Flexner and Baldwin, Juvenile Courts and Probation: 
Henderson, C. R., Introduction to the Study of Dependent, Defective, 
and Delinquent Classes; Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of Ameri- 
can Government, Chapters 28 and 30. The Survey will be very useful. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

A talk by the judge of the juvenile court on the work of that court 
should be arranged for by the class. 



CHAPTER THIRTY-THREE 

Conservation of Natural Resources 

The meaning of conservation. Literally, conser- 
vation means saving or guarding anything. We 
speak of the conserA^ation of health, and in physics, 
of energy. But the term has come to apply particu- 
larly to the saving for right use, principally through 
government action, of the natural resources of this 
countr^^ 

Land. The greatest of our natural resources is, 
of course, land. Our government long ago disposed 
of all the best of its lands that were naturally adapted 
to farming. This it did under the Homestead Act 
and earher acts, through grants to ex-soldiers and 
to railroads, and by direct sales. The cultivated 
area of our country can now be extended chiefly 
by the reclamation of deserts and swamps and the 
overflow lands along our great rivers. To this end 
the United States Reclamation Service has built 
great dams, like the Arrow Rock dam in Idaho, 
behind which are stored the waters of the Boise 
River, and brought water to tens of thousands of 
acres. At the same time, great areas of swamp land 
have been drained. The problem of preventing the 
destructive floods which frequently occiu" in many 
river valleys, especially the Mississippi, have been 
studied and government aid supplied. A great deal 
has been done, too, by state and local governments 
and by private enterprise to reclaim land (Figs. 105 
and 106). 

Much remains to be done, as in checking the waste- 

255 



256 



Loyal Citizenship 




U. S. Reclamation Service 



Fig. 104. The dam at Arrow Rock. The spillway, at the left, permits 
excess water to escape from the immense reservoir. 

fill use of land by individuals. Sometimes bad farm- 
ing methods are practiced to the ruination of the 
land; and erosion of farm lands (their washing away) 
is too often allowed to go on when it could easily 
enough be stopped. This is httle short of criminal. 
No man should be permitted to waste the source 
of the Hving of all of us. 

Wasting the forests. Much of the primeval forest 
of our country had to be cut away in order to make 
the land usable for farming. The early settlers, 
indeed, thought of the forest as an enemy to be 
conquered. The United States sold very cheaply 
or gave away vast tracts of timber land to private 



Conservation of Natural Resources 257 




L . ^. Eicianiauo/i Scriice 

Fig. 105. Not many years ago the Salt River country in Arizona was 
a desert. The Camel Back Mountains are shown in the distance. 







*'# :: 




^ / . 




I 
f 




_ --n-- ■■■.' --^j^Al 




*" 








^3 



U. S. Reclamation Service 

Fig. 106. The sagebrush land shown in Figure 105 has become a vast 
farm as a result of the Salt River irrigation project. 



258 Loyal Citizenship 

persons, who in many places cut and destroyed the 
forests on the hillsides. Rains then washed the soil 
away, leaving bare rocks in place of trees. Instead 
of being held by the forest to seep into the rivers, 
the waters from spring rains and melting snows 
poured into the valleys in destructive floods. Moisture 
dried quickly out of the unprotected ground and by 
midsummer the land was parched. 

Not only did the lumbermen cut merchantable 
timber, but they broke down the young timber, and 
left great quantities of waste from liunber upon the 
ground. When dry, this waste became the starting 
point of terrific fires that destroyed more forests 
than did the ax and the saw. 

Forest conservation. In 1905, Congress, acting 
upon the recommendation of President Roosevelt, 
created a Rureau of Forestry in the Department of 
Agriculture, and GifFord Pinchot, a far-seeing and 
pubhc-spirited man, was appointed Chief Forester. 
The United States has set aside about two hundred 
million acres of land in forest reserves. In these 
reserves only the full-grown timber is cut, and the 
cutting is done under restrictions which prevent 
waste. Another ten miUion acres have been set 
aside by the states in similar reserves. Rut the forest 
area owned by individuals is at least foiu* times as 
great as that owned by the public, and only a few 
private owners are really careful in the use of their 
property. 

Forest fires. Forest fires in the United States 
produce a loss of about fifty million dollars a year. 



Conservation of Natural Resources 259 




U. S. Forest Service 

Fig. 107. A fire in the Ol^Tupic National Forest, Washington, at 
night. Forest fire losses in the United States averaged more than 
17 miUion dollars a year from 1916 to 1920 inclusive. There were 
160,318 fires, and 56,488,307 acres were bm-ned over. 

They always start as small fires. Somebody throws 
a match mto a pile of brush, or somebody leaves a 
campfire bmriing. The United States Forest Service 
has prepared excellent rules for the prevention of 
forest fires. These are posted in pubhc places near 
the forest reserves. 

On the summit of a mountain commanding a view 
of hundreds of miles of forest will be a fire lookout 
or "observatory." Members of the forest service 



260 



Loyal Citizenship 




U. S. Forest Service 



Fig. 108. 



An observer watching for fires from a lookout tower on 
Marties' Peak, California. 



keep watch there day and night. Telephone wires 
run from the lookout to the stations of the forest 
rangers. As soon as a suspicious smoke is seen, the 
alarm is given and the rangers hurry to the location 
that the lookout has indicated. Volunteers are 
called upon to help fight the fires, equipment being 
supplied by the rangers. Recently the forestry 
service has instituted airplane patrols as a further 
means for the prompt discovery of fire. 

Conservation of wild life. Much has been done 
by pubhc-spirited individuals and by the government 
toward saving the native wild Hfe of our country. 
Game sanctuaries, the greatest of which is Yellow- 



Conservation of Natural Resources 261 

stone National Park, have been the means of pre- 
serving to us native American animals that have 
been threatened with extinction. Laws protecting 
fish, bird life, and game should be strongly enforced. 

Metals. The supply of some metals, like gold, 
silver, and platinum, is very limited, and they are 
so highly prized that the greatest care is always 
taken in mining them. But the more abundant and 
cheaper metals, which are much more necessary to 
human welfare than are the precious metals, are 
often mined in a wasteful manner. The temptation 
is to remove from the earth only the higher-yielding 
ores, leaving the rest in place, where it may never 
become available. Our government parted with 
most of its mineral lands for a mere trifle, retaining 
no control over them. 

The base metals should not be wasted. When 
they cease to be useful in one form, they should be 
saved, melted down, and used again. 

Coal. There is just so much coal to be taken from 
the ground, and the amount available can be esti- 
mated with reasonable accuracy. According to some 
authorities coal is being used at a rate that will 
exhaust the total supply of the United States in 
about 150 years. We who are hving now wiU never 
be without coal, but future generations may have 
very Httle of it. In the last few years seventy-five 
million acres of supposed coal land have been set 
apart by the government, including most of the very 
valuable coal lands of Alaska. This coal now belongs 
to the public, and it probably will be mined under 



262 Loyal Citizenship 

govermnent regulation, so that all the coal can be 
removed without waste. 

The use of water power wherever available will 
help tremendously in the conservation of coal. 

Oil. The increased use of crude petroleum as a 
fuel and of gasoline for driving automobiles is rapidly 
depleting our total stock of petroleum. At our 
present rate of consumption, the natural supply of 
the United States may be used up within the life- 
time of some of us. Oil should never be wasted — 
no matter what the price. Only the most economical 
methods of getting it from the ground should be 
used. Already the naval powers are in competition 
for the control of oil fields everywhere. Sea power 
depends upon petroleum, for the most effective 
v/arships must have it as fuel. 

Natural gas. Natural gas has been more wantonly 
wasted than any other of our natural resources. Up 
to a few years ago the waste was fully equal to the 
use. Natural gas is usually found in connection 
with oil wells, and oil operators have been grossly 
careless about what happened to the gas they in- 
cidentally opened up. 

QUESTIONS 

What is meant by conservation? What has been the policy of the 
United States with regard to public lands? What is meant by se- 
clamation? What has been the effect of recklessly cutting off our 
forests? Who was Chief Forester under President Roosevelt? 
What has the United States done toward forest conservation? What 
is being done to prevent forest fires? to preserve our native wild 
life? Is there danger of exhausting our supplies of coal, oil, and 
metals? What has the United States done toward their conservation? 
What are some of the things that we, as individuals, can do to help 
in conservation? 



Conservation of iSatural Resources 263 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

Each of our principal natural resources will furnish good material 
for a conservation report. Reports may also be made on the public- 
land policy of the United States, the principal p^o^isions of the 
Homestead Law, the Land Office, and the Reclamation Serv-ice. 
See Beard, C. A., American Government and Politics; Young, 
J. T., The New American Government; Cronan, R., Our Wasteful 
Nation; Ptscuot, Gifyobd, The Fight for Conservation; Fairbatvks, 
H. ^Y., Conservation Reader; Rked, T. H., Form and Functions of 
American Government, Chapter 33. The bulletin of the General 
Land Office on the Homestead Law and bulletins of the L'nited 
States Reclamation Ser\-ice can be had, upon request, of the Depart- 
ment of the Interior at \yashington. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Let the class decide upon some conservation project that the 
members can carry out, such as the sa%-ing of metal or Ike cultivation 
of vacant lots or unused spaces in back yards, the proceeds to be 
used in bu;>"ing or helping to buy some object to beautify the school- 
room. The class might, as a project to conserve ci\-ic beauty, 
undertake the removal of some unsightly object in the N-icinity of the 
school; but permission should first be secured. 



CHAPTER THIRTY-FOUR 

Development of Communications 

The need for easy transportation and communi- 
cation. To get the greatest benefit out of our widely 
spread natural resources — to conserve them through 
right use — ^we need the best possible means of trans- 
portation. We need, too, the highest development 
in mail, telegraph, telephone, cable, and wireless 
service, in order to promote the free interchange of 
ideas. The better our means of communication, the 
easier it is to make and keep the American people a 
social and political unit. The Romans understood 
this principle and acted upon it when they followed 
up each new extension of their territory by building 
a good road. 

Highways. The veins and arteries of the economic 




American Museum of Nat. Hist. 

Fig. 109. Progress in ocean transport. The "Mayflower" of 1621 
compared with the "Leviathan" of 1921. 

264 



Development of Communications 265 




C S. Burec^^ of Public Roads 

Fig. 110. Buildinnr a concrete road between Reading and 
AUentown, Pennsvlvania. 



life of our country- are its tiigliAyays: roads, railroads, 
rivers, lakes, and canals, and now even its air lanes. 
It is comparatively cheap to move goods by rail, still 
cheaper to move them by water, and comparatively 
expensive to haul them on trucks or wagons. It may 
cost less to bring Hood River apples from a raihoad 
station in Oregon to a railroad station in the ^Middle 
^Yest than it does to haul them to one freight plat- 
form and away from the other. The cost of trucking 
depends very much on the character of the roads. 
Dirt roads are frequently either so muddy or so 
dusty as to make transportation difficult, and 
macadamized roads are soon torn to pieces by SAvift- 
moving automobiles. But oxer smooth concrete 
roads great ten-ton motor trucks roll with ease. 



266 



Loyal Citizenship 




U. S. Bureau of Public Roads 

Fig. 111. A section of the Lincoln Highway between Kingston 
and New Brunswick, New Jersey. Such a well-built concrete road 
is easily maintained, and it greatly reduces the cost of motor trans- 
portation. 

One of the things that the people of our country most 
need to do is to establish a fine system of paved highways. 
But it is beyond the means of any except the more 
thickly settled localities to pay for paved highways, 
and a large part of the expense must be borne by the 
state and national governments. State aid for roads 
was begun by New Jersey (1891), quickly followed 
by Massachusetts (1892), California (1895), and 
New York (1898). Now every state is engaged in 
good-roads work. On conditions laid down in the 
Federal Aid Road Act, the United States will bear 
as much as fifty per cent of the cost of actual con- 
struction of roads within a state. 

The fundamental principle of road building is 



Development of Communications 267 






Fig. 112. The Appian Way ^yas laid out straight ana level in the 
fourth century, B. C. Parts of it, like the section shown here, have 
been in use ever since. 



summed up in the old saying, "The best is the 
cheapest." The most famous road in history, the 
Appian Way, was paved by the Romans, and many 
portions of it are still in place. The Romans built 
their roads to endure. It is the high cost of main- 
tenance and repair on inferior roads that takes too 
much of the taxpayers' money. 

Natural waterways. Water transportation ^is 
much cheaper than any form of land transportation. 
For £iU low-priced, bulky, non-perishable articles it 
is to be preferred if availEible. The prosperity of our 
country has been largely due to the wonderful natural 
waterways that are available to it. The waters of the 
Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific Ocean, 
and the Great Lakes are the most important of these. 



268 Loyal Citizenship 

River transportation on the great Mississippi 
system has dechned in importance, but it has a 
great future. The works that will protect the 
adjoining lands from flood will deepen and straighten 
the channels of the streams. 

The United States spends vast sums every year 
on the improvement of harbors and deepening and 
more plainly marking channels. Through the Coast 
and Geodetic Survey it surveys and charts the coasts 
for the benefit of mariners. The Lighthouse Service 
maintains lighthouses, lightships, and buoys to make 
navigation safer. The Bureau of Navigation and 
the Steamboat Inspection Service enforce laws for 
the safety of vessels (including the examination and 
hcensing of pilots and officers of steamships). The 
Life Saving Station Service rescues the passengers 
and crews of vessels in distress. 

Canals. Before the day of railroads, canals were 
built as a means for the cheap transport of freight 
and even passengers. The most famous of our early 
canals was the Erie, which ran from Buffalo to 
Albany and connected the Great Lakes with the 
Hudson River. A glance at the map will show what 
a large part of the United States it served. Canals 
within our country have lost much of their early 
importance. Nevertheless, the state of New York 
found it worth while to spend nearly $150,000,000 in 
building a barge canal over much the same route as 
the Erie, the work being completed in 1918 (Fig. 
113). A similar canal from Albany to the lower 
end of Lake Champlain was completed in 1916. 



Development of Communications 269 




Fig. 113. A section of the New York Barge Canal. A giant car 
float, buUt in a shipyard on the Great Lakes, is being towed through 
the canal for use in New York harbor. 



These canals will accommodate vessels drawing 
twelve feet of water. 

There are several important ship canals connecting 
large bodies of water, such as the Sault Ste. Marie 
Canal, which unites Lakes Superior and Huron, 
Eind the Gape Cod Canal. The Panama Canal brings 
the east and west coasts of the United States close 
together for commerce and defense. Up to the 
present time it has cost the United States not far 
from $500,000,000. It was completed under the 
direction of General Goethals of the United States 
Army. 



270 Loyal Citizenship 

Railroads. The railroads of this country were built 
by private capital, sometimes with government 
assistance. For a long time they did as they pleased 
with regard to their rates and the character of the 
service they gave. But they discovered that com- 
petition in rates and service was cutting off their 
profits, and they came to make agreements about 
rates. This left the shipper and the traveler at their 
mercy and led, in turn, to government regulation. 
Now state railroad or public utility commissions regu- 
late railroad business within each state, and the 
Interstate Commerce Commission regulates interstate 
railroads. 

War measures. When we entered the Great 
War, it immediately became apparent that the 
railroads of our country must be operated as a 
single system if we were to get the most out of them 
in moving troops and war materials. The govern- 
ment wanted its freight to go by the most direct 
routes irrespective of railroad ownership. After an 
attempt on the part of the railroads to get together, 
which failed partly because of legal restrictions on 
combinations of lines, the President was authorized 
by Congress to take over all the railroads of the country. 
This was done, and during the war period they were 
operated by a director-general, appointed by the 
President. The American telegraph lines and cables 
were also temporarily taken over by the government 
as a war measure. They were operated under the 
Post Of&ce Department. 

Transportation Act of 1920. By this act, which 



Development of Communications 271 




Fig. 114, The terminal yards of the ^Yest Shore Railroad at Wee- 
hawken, New Jersey, just across the Hudson from New lork. The 
river brings large ships immediately up to the yards. 



was signed by the President on February 28, 1920, 
the raiboads Avere returned to their owners two days 
later. The United States undertook to adjust losses 
occurring as a result of government management 
and to make up any failure in revenue during the 
six months following ]\larch 1, 1920. The act 
provides for the settlement by a Labor Board of 
disputes between employers and employees that 
cannot otherwise be settled without a strike. This 
board consists of nine members, three representing 
the organized workers, three the raihoad manage- 
ment, and three the general pubhc (the last appointed 
by the President of the United States). The Inter- 
state Commerce Commission is given power to make 
plans for the consolidation of the railway hues of the 



272 Loyal Citizenship 

country into a limited number of systems, and to 
authorize consolidation if any railroads desire it, 
according to these plans. No one thinks that the 
question of the management of our railroads has 
been definitely settled by the Act of 1920, and 
various plans for the management of the railroads 
have been urged before Congress. 

Air transportation. The possibihties of transpor- 
tation by airplane and dirigible balloon are very 
great. Passenger air service is now conducted 
between different cities by private companies, and 
the United States government operates air-mail 
routes, one of them connecting New York and San 
Francisco. As air transportation develops, new 
problems of traffic regulation will arise. 

Postal service . Our need for communication facil- 
ities is not fully met by the construction of railroads, 
highways, or canals or even by the estabhshment of 
stage, railway, steamship, and air Hues. There must 
be methods for swiftly and safely forwarding letters 
or packages from one part of the country to another — 
often over several such hues — and for dehvering 
them to the proper party at the end of the journey. 
This service is rendered by the Post Office Depart- 
ment, one of the most important branches of the 
Federal government. For two cents the Department 
will carry a letter from New York to Seattle and 
dehver it at the door of the person to whom it is 
addressed. For a very moderate charge packages 
(within certain limits of size and shape) will be 
carried anywhere in the country. The free delivery 



Development of Communications 273 

of mail in rural districts, often many miles from a 
post office, is one of the most useful parts of the 
service. One must now hve in a very remote spot 
indeed, not to have mail brought daily to his door. 
Through treaties with other countries om* Post 
Office forwards mail to all parts of the world and 
receives it in return. 

Express service. Express companies perform a 
service very similar to that of the Post Office in 
forwarding packages, though without limit as to 
size. But they do not dehver outside the limits of 
cities in which their offices are located. During the 
war the great express companies were consohdated 
in the American Railway Express, whichNvas for a 
time operated by the government. Both the Post 
Office and the express companies will forward sums 
by money order or by registered or insured package. 

Telephone and telegraph service. The telephone 
and telegraph have made the far corners of the world 
our near neighbors. So far, except for a brief period 
during the war, they have been under private man- 
agement. In many other countries the telegraph 
and sometunes the telephone service is managed by 
the government, usually in comiection with the 
postal service. Our telephone system especially is 
vastly superior in extent and in quahty of service 
to any other in the world. In some sections of the 
country there are competing telephone companies, 
but this situation is not ver^' satisfactory. The 
telephone and telegraph services are bound in the 
long run to be practical monopolies, and the same 



274 Loyal Citizenship 

principles apply to their regulation as to other 
public utilities (see Chapter 23). 

QUESTIONS 

Explain the importance of transportation. Why are well-paved 
highways so necessary? When and where did the system of state- 
aided highways begin? Why do portions of the Appian Way still 
exist? Should roads be owned by the public? Give your reasons. 
What does the United States do to make water transportation safe 
and convenient? What hope is there for a revival of river traffic? 
Why was the Erie Canal important? To what extent are canals 
still important in New York State? Name some of the important 
ship canals. Should canals be pubhcly or privately owned? Why? 
What bodies have been established to regulate such matters as 
railroad rates? For what reason? Why were the railroads taken over 
by the government during the Great War? What are the principal 
features of the Transportation Act of 1920? What are some of the 
services rendered by the Post Office Department? by express com- 
panies? What principles should govern regulation of telephone 
and telegraph companies? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The Esch-Cummins plan for the management of railroads (em- 
bodied in part in the Transportation Act) ; the highway system of 
your own state; the history of the Erie Canal, or of another canal 
that may be more closely related to your locality; the railroad 
commission of your own state; the Interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion; the various bureaus and services of the national government 
that are mentioned in the text. The "Plumb plan" for the manage- 
ment of railroads might be made the subject of a report. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Appoint a committee to study and report on the highways of your 
locality, locating them on a map and describing their condition. 

A debate: Resolved, That the railroads of the United States 
should be owned and operated by the national government. 



CHAPTER THIRTY-FIVE 
Footing the Rills 

Government costs money. War materials, public 
buildings, and all the services of government cost 
money — ^much money. Oiu' public servants, from 
President to street sweeper, have to be paid for their 
work. WTiile the individual salaries are generally not 
large, aU of them together make a vast sum. We 
cannot have armies, navies, post offices, pohce and 
fire departments, and schools without paying for 
them. We must understand that ivhen the city, county, 
state, or nation spends money, it spends the citizens' 
money. Since income taxes have been imposed by the 
Federal and several of the state governments, many 
people have come to realize this as they never did 
before. 

How government gets money. Governments get 
money principally in three ways: (1) Ry obhging 
people to make pa^Tuents toward the support of 
government. The forms of these paAinents are 
many, but they are all called taxes; (2) by charging 
a smaU sum for such serAdces as fihng petitions at 
law and recording deeds, these charges being called 
fees (postage may be regarded as a fee); (3) by 
selling gas, water, electric current, or street-car rides, 
receipts from such sources being called prices. 
Through fees the individual pays at least part of 
the extra expense that government bears on bis 
account. Wlien he buys electric current or water 
from a city, he pays for it exactly as if he were deahng 
with a private corporation. Taxation is the method 



276 



Loyal Citizenship 



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4.000 


4.00O 


m:u.ion3 or dollars 

6,000 B.OOO 10.000 


1 7 .000 


14,000 


10,0 




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Fig. 115. The total payments for all government costs of 146 cities 
in the United States compared with those of the Federal government, 
during specified years. 



by which we are all obliged to help pay for the gen- 
eral cost of government. 

Who spends the most money. Just now it is the 
national government that spends most of the public 
money, but this is because we have so recently been 
at war. In ordinary times the state and local gov- 
ernments taken together spend much more money 
than does the national government. It is just as 
important to watch their expenditures as it is to 
watch those of the government at Washmgton. 

Taxes on imports. The United States derives 
its revenue from duties on imports, and from inter- 
nal revenue, inheritance, income, and other special 
taxes. Almost every article imported into the United 
States from foreign countries is taxed, usually highly 
taxed. Of course, the consumer really pays this 



Footing the Bills 277 

import tax, for the importer adds enough to his 
selling price to reimbm^se himself. 

The Kst of import taxes is called a tariff. A tariff 
may be for revenue only, or it may be protective. The 
United States generally has a high protective tariff. 
The pm'pose of such a tariff is largely to exclude many 
foreign products. If it costs us more to produce cut- 
lery or raisins or paper pulp than it costs foreigners 
to produce them, we place a high enough duty on 
these articles to make the foreign products more 
expensive than the American. In this way our pro- 
ducers are "protected." There are many people who 
on principle oppose the protective tariff. They say 
it is not fair to make everybody in this country pay 
more for many articles merely to benefit a small part 
of the people. Others argue that the prosperity of 
our farmers, miners, and manufacturers makes every- 
body else more prosperous, and that a high tariff 
makes possible the payment of high wages. It is 
argued, too, that a high tariff is necessary to preserve 
industries that may become essential to victory in 
war. The tariff question has always been an issue 
between the political parties of the country, and it is 
apparently as far from settlement as it was a century 
ago. 

Internal revenue. Every package of tobacco or 
playing cards has a stamp on it which must be broken 
to open the package. That stamp was bought by 
the manufacturer from the United States and repre- 
sents a tax. Stamps are now required on many legal 
papers, and taxes are collected from every one who 



278 Loyal Citizenship 

attends a theater or who buys an automobile or an 
expensive dress. These are merely examples of some 
of our sources of internal revenue. 

Inheritance, income, and profits taxes. When 
any one dies leaving more than a few thousand dol- 
lars, any inheritance from his estate is subject to a 
Federal tax and often to a state tax. The rate of the 
tax is higher as estates are larger. The rate is also 
higher for distantly related heirs or strangers than 
it is for near relatives. Thus, a wife or a child pays a 
smaller tax than does a nephew. 

Every immarried person with an income of more 
than $1000 a year, and every married person with 
an income of more than $2500 a year, is required to 
pay a tax on any income above $1000 or $2500, as the 
case may be. (But an exemption of $400 is allowed 
for certain dependent members of a family, other 
than wife.) This tax begins with 4 per cent for small 
incomes and increases to 65 per cent for an income of 
a miUion dollars or more. Such a tax is called a pro- 
gressive income tax. Very heavy taxes were also im- 
posed on the extra high profits that many corpora- 
tions were able to make on account of war conditions. 
The national income tax was provided for by the 
Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution. 

State and local taxation. A few states derive 
their income from taxes on the gross receipts of public 
utiUty corporations, banks, and insurance compan- 
ies. Many of them get some revenue from poll taxes 
(payment of a few dollars by each voter or adult 
inhabitant) and income and inheritance taxes. The 



Footing the Bills 279 

great bulk of the revenue of city, state, and local 
governments conies from the general property tax. 
All property, real and personal, is assessed by the 
city, town, or county assessor to determine its value. 
Then the state, county, town, or city, havuig settled 
how much money it must raise, levies a tax that will 
produce this sum. The rate of the tax is fixed at so 
many "nulls on the dollar " — so many tenths of a cent 
for each dollar of valuation. In practice, real prop- 
erty — Elands and houses — is usually assessed at about 
60 per cent of its value, and most personal property 
escapes local assessment altogether. In order to be 
fair, the assessment must be very carefi^y made 
by weU-trained assessors. Unfortunately, it is too 
rarely made in that way. 

How we all help to pay local taxes. We hear a 
good deal in local poHtics about the rights of the tax- 
payer. We have taxpayers' associations and tax- 
payers' candidates. In some states only taxpayers 
vote on proposals to borrow money, and some munici- 
pal reformers haA^e suggested that only taxpayers 
should have the right to vote for mayor and council- 
men. WTien we speak of "taxpayers" we usually 
mean property owners, and we assume that these 
really pay aU the taxes. As a matter of fact, they do 
not. If a family fives in a rented house, part of the 
rent money goes to pay the landlord's taxes. The 
grocer's rent pays his landlord's taxes, and when the 
fanfily buys groceries it pays a share of the grocer's 
rent. The actual burden of taxation is borne by the 
whole community. But most of us pay the larger 



280 Loyal Citizenship 

part of our share in a very indirect way, and unfor- 
tunately we do not realize to what extent we are hearing 
taxation. We are too much incHned, therefore, to be 
careless with regard to increased pubHc expenditures. 

Budgets. A budget is a plan for spending in- 
come. It is a very good thing for young people 
who earn money regularly or who have allowances, to 
make budgets for themselves : so much for saving, so 
much for books or clothes, and so much for amuse- 
ments. A budget is a very great aid to family and 
individual thrift. 

If the budget is a good thing for the individual, it is 
almost indispensable for the city, county, state, and 
nation. In no other way can these avoid spending 
more than they have or being left with idle money in 
the treasury. A good budget is the first step toward 
governmental economy. Many cities and a few 
states have excellent budget systems. But, strangely, 
the United States government with its enormous 
expenditures did not adopt a budget system until 
1921. 

Increase in government expenditures. Entirely 
apart from the war and its effects, governmental ex- 
penditures have been steadily increasing. We de- 
mand, for example, more and better roads, public 
institutions, and parks than we did ten years ago. 
Many people regard increased expenditures with 
alarm. There would be no reason for this if the 
additional money were spent wisely. Governments 
do not exist to save money, but to expend it in 
such a way as to secure the greatest possible benefit to 



Footing the Bills 



281 



all of the people. If the object is good and the people 
get full value for each dollar spent, that is enough. 




Edwin Marcus in New York Times 

Fig. 116. " Stop the Leaks! " There are always pohticians and others 
whose schemes lead to government extravagance. Our citizens must 
be on the alert to prevent any waste of government funds. 

The kind of increase in expenditure that we need to 
fear arises from waste and poor judgment. We should 
require of our governments as careful and efficient ad- 
ministration as is required in private business (Fig. 
116). 

Public debts. Governments cannot always meet 
their expenditures out of current income, yet it is 
not thought wise to have them hoard money to 



282 



Loyal Citizenship 



meet extraordinary expenses. Therefore, in emer- 
gencies they must borrow money. The United States 
had to float five huge loans, that it might do its part 
in the Great War. Highways, bridges, pubhc build- 
ings, waterworks, and sewers are paid for through 
loans. Public loans that are to run for a period of 
years are effected through the sale of bonds — sprinted 
and signed instruments bearing promises to pay prin- 
cipal and installments of interest at fixed dates. 
In the case of a state or a local government a propo- 
sition for borrowing money must usually be sub- 
mitted to and approved by the people at an election. 
The following table from Financial Statistics of 
Cities, 1919, published by the Bureau of the Census, 
shows the indebtedness of 146 cities in the United 
States and the indebtedness of the Federal govern- 
ment during specified years. The very great in- 
crease in the national debt shown for 1918 and 1919 
was due to the war. 



Year 


146 Cities 


UpaTED States 


Total 


Per 

capita 


Total 


Per 
capita 


1919 

1918 

1917 

1915 

1913 

1911 

1909 

1907 

1905 

1903 


$2,541,172,360 
2,508,095,418 
2,445,851,564 
2,245,906,412 
1,950,006,813 
1,808,828,392 
1,-537,099,399 
1,294,878,759 
1,119,345,755 
933,004,632 


$81.18 
80.96 
80.75 
77.86 
69.28 
67.52 
61.21 
56.04 
50.94 
44.71 


$24,479,302,376 

10,924,281,355 

1,908,635,224 

1,090,148,006 

1,028,564,055 

1,015,784,338 

1,023,861,531 

878,596,755 

989,866.772 

925,011,637 


$2.34.77 
104.59 
18.56 
10.95 
10.59 
10.83 
11.31 
10.06 
11.77 
11.44 



Footing the Bills 283 

QUESTIONS 

\\Tiy does government cost money? WTiat does it spend its money 
for? A\Tiat is meant by "taxes"? "fees"? "prices"? How does the 
Federal government compare with state and local governments in 
the amount of its expenditm*es? Why should we watch local expen- 
ditures? From what sources does the United States get its revenue? 
Explain taxes on imports. What is meant by the term "protective 
tariff"? Give some of the arguments for and against it. Explain 
what is meant by "internal revenue." TeU what you can of the 
Federal income tax. What is meant by "inheritance tax"? ^Miat 
is meant by "general-property tax"? How are local taxes raised? 
Explain how we all help to pay taxes. Tell some of the advantages 
of a budget. Do you think that the United States shoLdd have a 
budget? Why? Are government expenditures increasing? Should 
we regard this with cJarm? W hy? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION ^ 

The expenditure of money by your own state and local community. 
What, for example, are the ten largest items of expense in your city? 
The local budget and the local tax system. The published reports 
of the state controller or auditor and the reports of your local 
government will give the necessary information. If your local 
government does not publish reports, the information can be obtained 
by visiting the offices. See Be.\rd, C. A., American Government and 
Politics and American City Government; Munro, W. B., Government 
of the United States and Government of American Cities; Plehn, 
C. C, Introduction to Public Finance and Government Finance in the 
United States; Encyclopedia of American Government (see titles 
"Tax," "Tariff," etc.); Bureau of the Census, Financial Statistics 
of Cities (published yearly). 

On the budget see Wilson, Woodrow% Congressional Government, 
and Bryce, James, The American Commonwealth. The whole subject 
of this chapter is covered in Reed, T. H., Form and Functions of 
American Government, Chapters 40 and 41. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Let the class debate the proposition: Resolved, That the United 
States should maintain a high protective tariff. 



CHAPTER THIRTY-SIX 
Our Place in the World 

The United States and Europe. At the close of 
the American Revolution there was but a thin fringe 
of population along the Atlantic seaboard. There was 
then grave danger that the nations of Europe would 
involve the new American republic in one of their 
frequent quarrels, and perhaps destroy its independ- 
ence. It was for this reason that Washington 
solemnly urged the American people to avoid en- 
tangling alliances with European countries. He felt 
that if we kept strictly to ourselves and had as httle 
as possible to do with European affairs we might the 
better work out our own salvation (Fig. 117). 

But in spite of om* best efforts we were drawn into 
the struggle between Great Britain and France. Both 
nations violated the rights of our people on the sea, 
and finally, in 1812, we went to war with Great 
Britain. We did not do this because we were inter- 
ested in Euro'pean affairs, but simply to protect our 
own rights. After the War of 1812 we continued to 
have a pm-ely American policy. It was not until the 
conflict of 1914-1918 that we had. a share of any 
magnitude in the settlement of Em-opean questions. 
The Great War was not merely a European war, it 
was a world war, and the United States as one of the 
leading nations could not escape playing a part in it. 

The Monroe Doctrine. Early in the nineteenth 
century the Spanish colonies in North and South 
America, except Cuba, revolted. They established 
themselves as independent repubhcs and were rec- 

284 



Our Place in the World 285 




U. S. Department of State 

Fig. 117. The sword of George Washington. In disposing of two of 
his swords by will, Washington provided that they should not be 
unsheathed for the purpose of shedding blood except in self-defense 
or in defense of our country and its rights. 

ognized as such by the United States. At that time 
the sovereigns of continental Europe were united in 
what was known as the Holy Alliance. One purpose 
of this AUiance was to put down all defeiocratic up- 
risings, and our people feared that it was about to 
assist the king of Spain in subduing his former Amer- 
ican colonies. At the same time there was a dispute 
between Russia, Great Britain, and the United 
States over territorial claims in the Pacific northwest. 
In view of these circumstances President Monroe 
in his message to Congress in December, 1823, made 
two declarations: First, "that the American conti- 
nents by the free and independent condition which 
they have assumed and maintadn, are henceforth not 
to be considered as subjects for colonization by any 
Em-opean powers;" and second, "With the existing 
colonies or dependencies of any European power we 
have not interfered and shall not interfere. But with 
the governments who have declared their independ- 
ence and maintained it, and whose independence we 
have on great consideration and on just principles 



286 Loyal Citizenship 

acknowledged, we could not view any interposition 
for the purpose of oppressing them or controlling in 
any other manner their destiny by any European 
power in any other light than as the manifestation of 
an unfriendly disposition to the United States." 
. These principles, known as the Monroe Doctrine, 
have been extended from time to time until the Doc- 
trine has come to mean that the United States will not 
allow any European or Asiatic power to attack or con- 
trol any of the independent countries of North or South 
America, cr to acquire additional territory on either 
continent. It is clearly understood by other nations 
that the United States would go to war to defend the 
Monroe Doctrine. Foreign nations have frequently 
expressed their disapproval of it, but they have re- 
spected our attitude. In several instances they have 
been compelled to do so, as in the '60's when an 
attempt was made to establish a kind of European 
empire in Mexico. 

The existence of the Monroe Doctrine has made it 
necessary for the United States to accept responsi- 
bility for the good conduct of the Latin-American states. 
Since we wiU not aUow them to be attacked, a Euro- 
pean state that has a quarrel with one of the weaker 
American republics looks to the United States to 
secure settlement. The doctrine is very dear to the 
American people. One of the reasons why the 
United States entered the Great War lay in the fact 
that if the Central Powers were victorious the Mon- 
roe Doctrine might have been supported only with 
extreme difficulty. One of the matters most fre- 



Our Place in the World 



287 




Fig. 118. This statue was the gift of the repubHc of Venezuela to 
the city of New York, in token of good will toward the United States. 
It represents Simon Bolivar, the South American Liberator. 

quently discussed in connection with the League of 
Nations was its probable efTect on the Monroe 
Doctrine. 

Foreign relations. Our relations with foreign coun- 
tries are handled by the President through the Secretary 
of State. In the State Department there are numer- 
ous bureaus or offices devoted to the diplomatic serv- 
ice. At each of the principal capitals of the world we 



288 Loyal Citizenship 

keep a diplomatic representative l^nown as an ambas- 
sador; at less important capitals, a minister. At 
Washington are similar representatives from all the 
principal countries of the world. The embassy, as the 
official residence of an ambassador is called, is re- 
garded as part of his home country. Ambassadors 
and ministers are not subject to the laws of the 
country to which they are sent, and they cannot, 
according to established custom, be arrested or pun- 
ished in any way by it. If a country is dissatisfied 
with the conduct of the ambassador of another coun- 
try, it asks for his recall. This was what the United 
States did in the case of Dr. Dumba, the last ambas- 
sador of Austria-Hungary, who was found to have 
been plotting against the peace of the United States. 

For the purpose of looking after the business inter- 
ests of our people abroad, an American consul is 
stationed in every important city of the world. Con- 
suls are appointed by the President, but candidates 
must first show that they are fit for appointment by 
passing an examination. They supply this country 
with information concerning commercial conditions 
in the countries in which they are located, and they 
assist American sailors and travelers, often sending 
home those who have met with difficulties abroad. 

International law. During the course of many cen- 
turies, nations, like individuals, have developed rules 
for the guidance of their conduct toward each other. 
These rules are known as international law. Thev 
are founded upon reason and old custom and upon 
agreements between nations or groups of nations. 



Our Place in the World 



289 



The rules relating to the conduct of war have been 
agreed upon in a number of international gatherings. 
The Declaration of Paris in 1856 laid down rules 
for the conduct of war at sea. Since 1899 a number 
of international conventions have been held at The 
Hague, their purpose being to promote peace and 
to lessen the horrors of war. The status of the Red 
Cross has been fixed by international law. 

International law differs from the law that prevails 
within a country (domestic law) chiefly because there 
has been httle or no organized provision for its enforce- 
ment. Nations have had to fight to assert their rights. 
But since the days of the prophet Isaiajj, men have 
longed for a time when wars shall cease. 

The League of Nations. The peace conference 




Fig. 119. The first session of the League of Nations at Geneva, 

Switzerland. 



290 Loyal Citizenship 

that met after the Great War included in the Treaty 
of Versailles the Covenant of a League of Nations. 
By the provisions of Article Twelve the nations ac- 
cepting it agreed that if there should arise between 
them any dispute likely to lead to a ruptm*e they 
would submit the matter either to arbitration or to 
inquiry by the Council of the League of Nations. 
The much discussed Article Ten reads as follows: 
"The members of the League undertake to respect 
and preserve as against external aggression the 
territorial integrity and existing political independ- 
ence of all members of the League." There are pro- 
visions for the limitation of armaments, and for the 
guidance and control of weak or backward peoples 
("mandatories"). There is also an arrangement de- 
signed to do away with secret treaties, which have 
been the cause of much mischief in the past. 

The machinery created for the management of the 
League consists of an Assembly, a?^ Council, a Secre- 
tariat, and an International Court. The Assembly 
consists of representatives of the members, each member 
having one vote. The British self-governing colonies 
(Canada, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand) and 
India are included as members. The Council con- 
sists of the representatives of the principal powers 
concerned and of four members elected by the 
Assembly. The Secretariat consists of a Secretary- 
General and such a staff as may be necessary. The 
offices of the Secretariat are located at Geneva in 
Switzerland. The International Court is a perma- 
nent body to which suits may be submitted. One 



Our Place in the World 



291 




Fig. 120. "The Foundations of Peace," a newspaper cartoon by 
Nelson Harding. 



American, Mr. John Bassett Moore, was elected a 
judge of this court. 

The Assembly of the League of Nations is not 
expected to meet frequently, and greater power is 
vested in the Council. In case of violation of the 
covenant, it is the Council that directs the measures to 
be taken. Except in a few cases, action by the As- 
sembly or by the Council must be unanimous. 
Neither party to a dispute may sit in the Council or 
Assembly when its dispute is under discussion. 



292 Loyal Citizenship 

Though Woodrow Wilson, who was President at the 
time of the treaty making, was one of the chief pro- 
moters of the League of Nations, the United States 
has refused to accept it. 

National defense. So long as there is uncer- 
tainty as to the success of any efforts to prevent war, 
it will be wise for our country to be prepared to de- 
fend itself. This is especially true because there are 
delicate questions between the United States and 
other powers, which may at any time develop seri- 
ously. We know something of the frightful cost of 
war in lives and money, but costly as even victory is, 
it is by no means as costly as defeat. 

Patriotism in peace. Awful as war is, it has some 
good results. It arouses a spirit of patriotism and 
self-sacrifice in the people. When our nation is at 
war, men and women are ready to give up everything 
for their country. No sacrifice is too hard. They give 
their money, they submit to regulation in a hundred 
ways, and they send their sons to battle. If we main- 
tain as high a spirit of cooperation and sacrifice in 
peace as in war, there is no limit to the future pros- 
perity of our country and to its influence for the good 
of all mankind. 

QUESTIONS 

Why did Washington advise against entangling alliances? How 
were we drawn into the War of 1812? How did the Monroe Doctrine 
originate? What does it mean to America? Had it anything to do 
with om* going to war with Germany? What department of the 
national government handles om* relations with foreign countries? 
What are ambassadors and ministers? Describe the duties of consuls. 
How are treaties made? What is international law? How has it 



Our Place in the World 



293 



generally had to be enforced? Describe how the League of Nations 
is organized. \Yhat do the members of the League agree to do if a 
dispute arises? ^yhat do they promise with regard to territorial 
integrity and independence of members? How are peoples incapable 
of entire self-government to be taken care of? Should we be prepared 
to defend ourselves? How far should we go in preparedness for war? 
What elements of the war-time spirit should we preserve in times of 
peace? 

TOPICS FOR INVESTIGATION 

The Monroe Doctrine. The army. The navy. The League of 
Nations. 

Material on the IMonroe Doctrine can be found in any of the 
standard histories of the United States. The army and na^-y are in 
such a state of change since the war that we must depend for informa- 
tion concerning them upon periodicals, government reports, and 
pubHcations like the American Year Book. Periodicals should be 
consulted on existing foreign relations. A vast amahnt of material 
on the League of Nations is easily obtainable. 

CIVIC ACTIVITIES 

Introduce either or both of the following resolutions in the legis- 
latively organized class, and allow them to be discussed. 

Resolved, That the United States should maintain a navy as large 
as that of any other country. 

Resolved, That the League of Nations has proved itself a success. 




American Niimismafic Society 



APPENDIXES 



APPENDIX ONE 

Reference List 

General Works on American Government 

Beabd, C. a. American Government and Politics. 

Bryce, James. The American Commonwealth. 

YouTs'G, J. T. The New American Government. 

jMunro, W. B. The Government of the United States. 

KiaiBAix, E\'ERETT. The Noiional Government of the United States. 

High School Textbooks 

Reed, T. H. Form and Functions of American Government. 

Ashley, The New Civics. 

^Iagruder, American Government. 

GuiTTEAu, Government and Politics in the United States. 

General Works on Political Science 

Garner, J. W. Introduction to Political Science. ^ 
Leacock, S. J. Elements of Political Science. 
Gettell, R. G. Introduction to Political Science. 

Works on Comparative Government 

^YILSox, \yooDROW. The State. 

Govermnent Handbook Series, edited by David P. Barrows and 
Thom-^s H. Reed: 

Brooks, R. C. Government and Politics of Switzerland. 

PoRRiTT, E. Evolution of the Dominion of Canada. 

Kruger, F. K. Government and Politics of the German Empire. 

S-AET, E. ^I. Government and Politics of France. 

The Executive Departments 
Haskin, F. J. The American Government. 

Municipal Government 

Beard, C. A. American City Government. 
]MuxRO, W. B. Government of American Cities. 

Principles and Methods of Municipal Administration. 

Cook, ]M. L. Our Cities Awake. 

ZuEBLEV, C. American Municipal Progress. 

Howe, F. C. The Modern City and Its Problems. 

Addams, Jane. The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets. 

297 



298 Appendix One 

Riis, Jacob. How the Other Half Lives. 

Mabie, H. W. City Manager Plan (Debaters' Handbook Series). 

Short Ballot Organization. City Manager Plan. 

Rural Local Government 

GiLBERTSON, W. S. County Government. 

Elections, Parties, Etc. 

Ray, p. 0. Introduction to Political Parties and Practical Politics. 
Merriam, C. E. Primary Elections. 
Johnston, Alexander. American Politics. 
Childs, R. S. Short Ballot Principles. 

Economics — General Works 

Ely and Wicker. Elementary Principles of Economics. 
Taussig, F. W. Principles of Economics. 

Finance and Taxation 
Plehn, C. C. Introduction to Public Finance. 

Economic History 
Bogart, E. L. Economic History of the United Stales. 

Labor Laws 
Commons and Andrews. Principles of Labor Legislation. 

Periodicals 
The most necessary of periodicals is a good review of current news 
like the Literary Digest, Current Opinion, or Review of Reviews or 
Current History (which is particularly strong on world politics). 
On the social subjects of the course the Survey will be found most 
useful. On city government the American City wiU prove interesting. 
It is profusely illustrated. Of the general reviews, World's Work and 
the North American Review contain the largest proportion of articles 
of civic interest. The Hterary periodicals only occasionally have 
articles which will be available for class use. Many of the most 
readable articles on public questions appear in the Saturday Evening 
Post. For the use of teachers in keeping abreast of the subject the 
following are recommended: American Political Science Review, 
Political Science Review, Political Science Quarterly, National Munici- 
pal Review, and Annals of the Academy of Political and Social Science. 



APPENDIX TWO 

Constitution of the United States 
preamble 

We the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the 
common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the bless- 
ings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain £ind establish 
this Constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I 
Legislative Powers Vested in Congress 
Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shaU be vested in 
a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

Composition of the House of Representatives 
Sec. 2. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of 
members chosen every second year by the people of th^ several States, 
and the electors in each State shall have the quahfications requisite 
for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

Qualification of Representatives. 

2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have 
attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a 
citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an 
inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

Apportionment of Representatives and direct faxes — Census. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
the several States which may be included within this Union, accord- 
ing to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding 
to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to serv- 
ice for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths 
of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within 
three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United 
States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such man- 
ner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall 
not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have 
at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be 
made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, 
Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, 
Connecticut five, New York six. New Jersey four, Pennsylvania 
eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina 
five. South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 

299 



300 Appendix Two 

[This clause has been superseded, so far as it relates to represen- 
tation, by Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Consti- 
tution.] 

Filling of vacancies in representation. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, 
the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such 
vacancies. 

Selection of officers — Power of impeachment. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and 
other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Of the Senate 
Number of senators. 

Sec. 3. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 
two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for 
six years, and each Senator shall have one vote. 

[See Seventeenth Amendment.] 

Classification of senators — Filling of vacancies. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of 
the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into 
three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be 
vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at 
the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expira- 
tion of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second 
year; and if vacancies happen, by resignation, or otherwise, during 
the recess of the Legislature of any State, the executive thereof may 
make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the Legis- 
lature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

Qualifications of senators. 

3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the 
age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of the State for 
which he shall be chosen. 

Vice-President to be president of senate. 

4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of 
the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

Selection of officers — President pro tempore. 

5. The Senate shall choose their officers, and also a President pro 
tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exer- 
cise the office of President of the United States. 



Constitution of United States 301 

Senate to try impeachments. ' 

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice 
shall preside: And no person shall be convicted without the concur- 
rence of two thirds of the members present. 

Judgment in cases of impeachment. 

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further 
than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy 
any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States : but the 
party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indict- 
ment, trial, judgment, and punishment according to law. 

Eleciton of Senators and Representatives — Meetings of 

Congress 

Control of congressional elections. 

Sec. 4. 1. The times, places and manner of holdrhg elections for 
Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by 
the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law 
make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing 
Senators. 

Time for assembling of Congress. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and 
such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they 
shall by law appoint a different day. 

Powers aivd Duties of Each House of Congress 

Sole judge of qualifications of members — Regulations as to quorum. 

Sec. 5. 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns 
and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall 
constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may ad- 
journ from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attend- 
ance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties 
as each house may provide. 

Ea^h house to determine its own rules. 

2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish 
its members for disorderly behavior, cmd, with the concurrence of two 
thirds, expel a member. 



302 Appendix Two 

Journals and yeas and nays. 

3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their 
judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of 
either house on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those 
present, be entered on the journal. 

Adjournment. 

4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without 
the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to 
any other place than that in which the two houses shall be" sitting. 

Compensation, Privileges, and Disabilities of Senators 
AND Representatives 
Compensat ion—Pr iv ileges. 

Sec. 6. 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a com- 
pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out 
of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except 
treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest 
during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and 
in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate 
in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

Disability to hold other offices. 

2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which 
he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of 
the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments 
whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person 
holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of 
either house during his continuance in office. 

[See also Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment.] 

Mode of Passing Laws 

Revenue bills to originate in house. 

Sec. 7. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur 
with amendments as on other bills. 

Laws, how enacted — Veto power of President. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
and the Senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the 
President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if 
not, he shall return it, with his objections to that house in which it 
shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their 



Constitution of United States 303 

journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration 
two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the biU, it shall be sent, 
together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall 
likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that 
house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both 
houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the 
persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal 
of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the 
President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been 
presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he 
had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment, prevent its 
return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

Concurrent orders, resolutions, etc., to be passed on by President. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of 
the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except 
on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of 
the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be 
approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shaU be repassed by 
two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to 
the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

Powers Granted to Congress 
Taxation. 

Sec. 8. 1. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, 
duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the 
common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all 
duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United 
States; 

Borrowing of money. 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

Regulation of commerce. 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 
several States, and with the Indian tribes; 

Naturalization and bankruptcy. 

4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform 
laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

Money, weights, and measures. 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coins, 
and fix the standard of weights and measures; 



304 Appendix Two 

Counterfe it ing. 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities 
and current coin of the United States; 

Post offices. 

7. To establish post offices and post roads; 

Patents and copyrights. 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing 
for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their 
respective writings and discoveries; 

Inferior courts. 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

Piracies, felonies, etc. 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the 
high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; 

War, marque and reprisal. 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
rules concerning captures on land and water; 

Army. 

12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to 
that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 

Navy. 

13. To provide and maintain a navy; 

Land and naval forces. 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land 
and naval forces; 

Calling out militia. 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of 
the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; 

Organizing, arming, and disciplining militia. 

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the mili- 
tia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the 
service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the 
appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia 
according to the disciphne prescribed by Congress; 



Constitution of United States 305 

Exclusive legislation over District of Columbia, etc. 

17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over 
such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of 
particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat 
of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority 
over aU places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the 
State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, 
arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; — And 

To enact laws necessary to enforce Constitution, etc. 

18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry- 
ing into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested 
by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in 
any department or officer thereof. 

[For other powers, see Article II, Section 1; Article III, Sections 
2 and 3; Article IV, Sections 1-3; and Article V.] 



Limitations on Powers Granted to the UniAd States 
Slave trade. 

Sec. 9. 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any 
of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be 
prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight 
hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such impor- 
tation, not exceeding ten doUars for each person. 

Writ of habeas corpus not to be suspended — Exception. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus- 
pended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety 
may require it. 

Ex post facto laws and bills of attainder prohibited. 

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

Direct taxes. 

4. No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in pro- 
portion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be 
taken. 

Exports not to be taxed. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 



306 Appendix Two 

No preference to be given to ports of any State — Interstate shipping. 

6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or 
revenue to the ports of one State over those of another: nor shall 
vessels bound to, or from, one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay 
duties in another. 

Money, how drawn from treasury — Financial statements to be published. 

1. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence 
of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account 
of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published 
from time to time. 

Titles of nobility not to be granted — Acceptance by governmeni officers 
of favors from foreign powers. 
8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: And 
no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, 
without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolu- 
ment, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, 
or foreign state. 

Powers Prohibited to the States 

Limitations of powers of the several States. 

Sec. 10. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, aUiance, or con- 
federation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit 
bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in 
payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law 
impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

State imports and duties. 

2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any 
imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso- 
lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws: and the net produce 
of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, 
shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such 
laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 

Further restrictions on powers of States. 

3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty 
of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into 
any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign 
power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded or in such immi- 
nent danger as will not admit of delay. 



Constitution of United States 307 

ARTICLE II 
Executive Department 

Executive power vested in President — Term of office. 

Section 1. 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President 
of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the 
term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President chosen for 
the same term, be elected, as follows: 

Appointment and number of presidential electors. 

2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature 
thereof may direct, a number of Electors equal to the whole number 
of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled 
in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or person holding 
an office of trust or profit under the United States, shaU be appointed 
an Elector. 

Mode of electing President and Vice-President. 

. 3. The Electors shall meet in their respective Sta^s, and vote by 
ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant 
of the same state with themselves. And they shall make a fist of aU 
the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which 
fist they shafi sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of 
the government of the United States, directed to the President of the 
Senate. The President of the Senate shafi, in the presence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives, open aU the certificates, and 
the votes shafi then be counted. The person having the greatest 
number of votes shafi be the President, if such number be a majority 
of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than 
one who have such majority, and have an eqnal number of votes, 
then the House of Representatives shafi immediately choose by baUot 
one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then 
from the five highest on the fist the said house shafi in like maimer 
choose the President. But in choosing the President, the vote shafi 
be taken by States, the representation from each State having one 
vote; A quorum for this purpose shafi consist of a member or members 
from two thirds of the States, and a majority of aU the States shafi 
be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the Presi- 
dent, the person having the greatest number of votes of the Electors 
shafi be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more 
who have equal votes, the Senate shafi choose from them by bafiot 
the Vice-President. 

[This clause has been superseded by the Twelfth Amendment to 
the Constitution.] 



308 Appendix Two ' 

Time of choosing electors and casting electoral vote. 

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the Electors, 
and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be 
the same throughout the United States. 

Qualifications for the office of President. 

5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the 
United States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall 
be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be 
eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of 
thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the 
United States. 

[See also Article II, Section 1, and Fourteenth Amendment.] 

Filling vacancy in office of President. 

6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties 
of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and 
the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, 
resignation or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, 
declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer 
shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President 
shall be elected. 

Note. — Agreeably with the powers conferred by Clause 6, Sec- 
tion 1, Article II, of the Constitution, at its first session the Forty- 
ninth Congress in 1886 provided for the succession to the presi- 
dency in case of the removal, death, resignation, or inability of the 
President and Vice-President by directing that the office devolve 
first upon the Secretary of State, and in case of his inability, for any 
reason, to perform its duties, it should pass, successively, upon 
similar conditions, to the Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of 
War, Attorney-general, Postmaster-general, Secretary of the Navy, 
and Secretary of the Interior. If, however, any one of these officers 
should be of foreign birth, or otherwise disqualified, the presidency 
passes to the next named in the list. 

Compensation of the President. 

7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services, 
a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished 
during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall 
not receive within that period any other emolument from the United 
States, or any of them. 



Constitution of Lnited States 309 

Oath to be taken by the President. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) 
that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United 
States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and 
defend the Constitution of the United States." 



Powers of PREsroENT 

Commander-in-chief — May grant reprieves and pardons. 

Sec. 2. 1. The President shall be Commander-in-chief of the 
Army and Navy of the United States, and of the mihtia of the several 
States, when called into the actual ser\'ice of the United States; 
he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in 
each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the 
duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant 
reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except 
in cases of impeachment. ^ 

President may, with concurrence of the senate, make treaties, appoint 
ambassadors, etc. — Appointment of inferior officers, authority of 
Congress over. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of 
the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators 
present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice 
and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public 
ministers and consuls. Judges of the Supreme Court, and all other 
officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein 
otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law: but 
the Congress may by law, vest the appointment of such inferior 
officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts 
of law, or in the heads of departments. 

President may fill vacancies in office, during recess of senate. 

3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that 
may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions 
which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Further Powers of President 

President to give advice to Congress — May convene or adjourn it on 
certain occasions — To receive ambassadors, etc. 

Sec. 3. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress in- 
formation of the state of the Union, and recommend to their con-* 



310 Appendix Two 

sideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; 
he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either 
of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect 
to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as 
he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public 
ministers; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, 
and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 
[See also Article I, Section 5.] 



All civil officers removable by impeachment. 

Sec. 4. The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of the 
United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, 
and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and mis- 
demeanors. 

[See also Article I, Section 5.] 



ARTICLE III 
Judicial Department 

Judicial power, how vested — Terms of office and salary of judges. 

Section 1. The judicial power of the United States, shall be vested 
in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress 
may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of 
the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good 
behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services, a 
compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continu- 
ance in office. 

[See also Eleventh Amendment.] 



Jurisdiction of United States Courts 
Cases that may come before United States courts. 

Sec. 2. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law 
and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United 
States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their 
authority; — to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public min- 
isters and consuls; — to all cases of admiralty and maritime juris- 
diction; — ^to controversies to which the United States shall be a 
party; — to controversies between two or more States; — between a 
State and citizens of another State; — between citizens of different 
States; — ^between citizens of the same State claiming lands under 



Constitution of United States 311 

grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign States, citizens or subjects. 

Original and appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court. 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme 
Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before 
mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, 
both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such 
regulations as the Congress shaU make. 

[See also Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Amendments.] 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall 
be by jury; and such trial shall be held in tiie State where the said 
crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within 
any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress 
may by law have directed. 

[See also Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Amendments.] 

Treason 
Treason defined. 

Sec. 3. 1. Treason against the United States, shall consist only 
in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving 
them aid and comfort. 

Conviction. 

2. No person shaU be convicted of treason unless on the testimony 
of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open 
court. 

Punishment for treason. 

3. The Congress shaU have power to declare the punishment of 
treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, 
or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV 

The States and the Federal Government 

Each State to give full faith and credit to the public acts and records of 
other States. 

Section 1. Full faith and credit shaU be given in each State to 
the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other 
State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner 



312 Appendix Two 

in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and 
the effect thereof. 

[See also Fourteenth Amendment.] 

Interstate privileges of citizens. 

Sec. 2. 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all 
privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

Extradition between the several States. 

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other 
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 
shall on demand of the executive authority of the State from which 
he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having juris- 
diction of the crime. 

Persons held to labor or service in one State, fleeing to another, to be 
returned. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or 
regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but 
shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service 
or labor may be due. 

Admission of new States. 

Sec. 3. 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into 
this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the 
jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the 
junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the con- 
sent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the 
Congress. 

Control of the property and territory of the Union. 

2. The Congress shaU have power to dispose of and make all 
needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other 
property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Con- 
stitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the 
United States, or of any particular State. 

Republican government guaranteed. 

Sec. 4. The United States shaU guarantee to every State in this 
Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of 
them against invasion; and on application of the Legislature, or 
of the Executive (when the Legislature can not be convened) against 
domestic violence. 



Constitution of United States 313 

ARTICLE V 

Amepstdjuents 

Amendments, how proposed and adopted. 

Section 1. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses 
shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Con- 
stitution, or, on the apphcation of the Legislatures of two thirds 
of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amend- 
ments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and pur- 
poses, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures 
of three fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three 
fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be 
proposed by the Congress; Provided that no amendment which may 
be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight 
shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth 
section of the first article; and that no State, without its consent, 
shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI 
PROinscuous Provisions 

Debts contracted under the Confederation secured. 

Section 1. 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered 
into, before the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as vahd 
against the United States under this Constitution, as under the 
Confederation. 

[See also Fourteenth Amendment, Section 4.] 

Constitution, laws, and treaties of the United States to be supreme. 

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which 
shaU be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or wiiich 
shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be 
the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be 
bound thereby, an^-thing in the Constitution or laws of any State 
to the contrary notwithstanding. 

Who shall take constitutional oath — No religious test as to official 
qualification. 

3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and 
judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, 
shall be bound by oath or affirmation, to support this Constitution; 
but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any 
office or public trust under the United States. 



314 



Appendix Two 



ARTICLE VII 

Ratification of Constitution 

Section 1. The ratification of the conventions of nine States, 
shall be suffipient for the establishment of this Constitution between 
the States so ratifying the same. 

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States 
present the seventeenth day of September in the year of our 
Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven and of the 
independence of the United States of America the twelfth. 
In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names, 

GO : WASHINGTON— Presid'/. 

and Deputy from Virginia. 
Attest WnxiAM Jackson, Secretary. 



new hampshire 

John Langdon, 
Nicholas Gilman. 

massachusetts 
Nathaniel, Gorham, 
RuFus King. 

connecticut 

Wm. Saml. Johnson, 
Roger Sherman. 



delaware 
Geo: Read, 

Gunning Bedford, jun., 
John Dickinson, 
Richard Bassett, 
Jaco: Broom. 

maryland 

James McHenry, 

Dan of St Thos. Jenifer, 

Danl. Carroll. 



NEW YORK 

Alexander Hamilton. 

NEW jersey 

Wil: Livingston, 
David Brearly, 
Wm: Patterson, 
Jona: Dayton. 



virginia 
John Blair — 
James Madison Jr. 

north CAROLINA 

Wm. Blount 

RiCHD. DOBBS SpAIGHT. 

Hu Williamson 



PENNSYLVANIA 

B. Franklin, 
Thomas Mifflin, 
RoBT. Morris, 
Geo. Clymer, 
Thos. Fitzsimons, 
Jared Ingersoll, 
James Wilson, 
Gouv. Morris. 



SOUTH CAROLINA 

J. Rutledge 

Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, 

Charles Pinckney, 

Pierce Butler. 

GEORGIA 

William Few 
Abr Baldwin. 



Constitution of United States 315 

AMENDMENTS 

ARTICLE I 

Fbeedom of Religion, of Speech, of the Press, and Right of 

Petition 
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom 
of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to 
assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 
[Proposed September 25, 1789; in effect December 15, 1791.] 

ARTICLE II 
Right of People to Rear Arms not to be Infringed 
A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a 
free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not 

be infringed. [Id.] 

ARTICLE III 

Quartering of Troops ^ 

No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, 
without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner 
to be prescribed by law. [Id.] 

ARTICLE IV 

Persons and Houses to be Secure from Unreasonable 
Searches aintd Seizures 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall 
not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable 
cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describ- 
ing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 
[Id.] 

ARTICLE V 

Trials for Crimes — Just Compensation for Ppuvate 

Property Taken for Public Use 
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise 
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand 
Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the 
Mihtia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; 
nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice 
put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal 
case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, 
or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property 
be taken for public use, without just compensation. [Id.] 



316 Appendix Two 

ARTICLE VI 

Civil Rights in Trials for Crimes Enumerated 

In cJl criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to 
a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and 
district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district 
shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed 
of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with 
the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtain- 
ing witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistemce of counsel 
for his defense. [Id.] 

ARTICLE VII 

Civil Rights in Civil Suits 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, 
and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any 
court of the United States, than according to the rules of the com- 
mon law. [Id.] 

ARTICLE VIII 
Excessive Bail, Fines, and Punishments Prohibited 
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, 
nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. [Id.] 

ARTICLE IX 
Reserved Rights of the People 
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not 
be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 
[Id.] 

ARTICLE X 

Powers not Delegated, Reserved to States aivd People 

Respectively 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu- 
tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States 
respectively, or to the people. [Id.] 

ARTICLE XI 

Judicial Power of United States not to Extend to Suits 

against a State 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed 
to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted 



Constitution of United States 317 

against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or 
by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. [Proposed September 
5, 179U; in effect January 8, 1798.] 

ARTICLE XII 
Election of Presideint and VicE-PREsroENT 

The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall 
not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall 
name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in 
distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they 
shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and 
of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of 
votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit 
sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, directed 
to the President of the Senate; — ^The President of the Senate shall, 
in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open 
all the certificates and the votes shall then be cour»ed; — The person 
having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then 
from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three 
on the Hst of those voted for as President, the House of Representa- 
tives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in 
choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the 
representation from each State ha>-ing one vote; a quorum for this 
purpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of 
the State, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a 
choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a 
President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, 
before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice- 
President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other 
constitutional disability of the President. — ^The person having the 
greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice- 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
Electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then from 
the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the 
Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds 
of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole 
number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally 
ineligible to the office of President shall be eUgible to that of Vice- 
President of the United States. [Proposed December 12, 1803; in 
effect September 25, 180U.] 



318 Appendix Two 

ARTICLE XIII 

Slavery Prohibited ^ 

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as 
a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly 
convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject 
to their jurisdiction. 

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. [Proposed February i, 1865; in effect Decem- 
ber 18, 1865.] 

ARTICLE XIV 
Citizenship Defined — Privileges of Citizens 
Citizenship. 

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, 
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United 
States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make 
or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities 
of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any 
person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; 
nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection 
of the laws. 

Apportionment of Representatives. 

Sec. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
States, according to their respective numbers, counting the whole 
number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. 
But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of Electors 
for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representa- 
tives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or 
the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male 
inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens 
of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participa- 
tion in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein 
shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male 
citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one 
years of age in such State. 

Disqualification for office — Removal of disability. 

Sec. 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con- 
gress, or Elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, 
civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, 
having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as 
an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legis- 



Constitution of United States 319 

lature, or as an executive officer or judicial officer of any State, to 
support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged 
in insurrection or rebeUion against the same, or given aid or comfort 
to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two thirds 
of each house, remove such disabihty. 

Public debt not to be questioned — Payment of debts and claims incurred 
in aid of rebellion forbidden. • 

Sec. 4. The vahdity of the public debt of the United States, 
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions 
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebeUion, 
shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any 
State shall assume or pay any debt or obhgation incurred in aid 
of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim 
for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obhga- 
tions and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Power of Congress. 

Sec. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the pro\"isions of this article. [Proposed June 16, 1866; 
in effect July 28, 1868.] 

ARTICLE XV 

Elective Franchise 

Right of certain citizens to vote, established. 

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote 
shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any 
State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude — 

Power of Congress. 

Sec. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation, [Proposed February 27, 1869; in effect 
March 30, 1870.] 

ARTICLE XVI 

Income Taxes Authorized 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on in- 
comes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment 
among the several States, and without regard to any census or 
enumeration. 



320 Appendix Two 

ARTICLE XVII 

United States Senators to be Elected by Direct Popular 

Vote 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Sen- 
ators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; 
and each Senator shall have one vote. The Electors in each State 
shall have the qualifications requisite for Electors of the most 
numerous branch of the State Legislatures. 

Vacancies in Senator ships; when governor may fill by appointment. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in 
the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs 
of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the Legislature of 
any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary 
appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the 
Legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election 
or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of 
the Constitution. 

ARTICLE XVIII 
Traffic in Liquor for Reverage Purposes Prohibited 

1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manu- 
facture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the 
importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United 
States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for bever- 
age purposes is hereby prohibited. 

2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent 
power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been 
ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the Legislatures 
of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven 
years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the 
Congress. 

ARTICLE XIX 

Suffrage Extended to Women 

1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be 
denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account 
of sex. 

2. Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by appro- 
priate legislation. 



INDEX 



INDEX 



Accidents, insurance covering, 40; 

compensation to workmen for, 

247-248. 
Administration, compared with 

legislation, in city government, 

120-121. 
Agriculture, waste of land in, 256. 
Air, transportation by, 272. 
Air-mail routes, 272. 
Airplane patrols, instituted by 

Forest Service, 260. 
Alaska, gold mining in, 43; gov- 
ernment of, 233; coal lands in, 

261. 
Ambassador, position of, 287-288. 
American Federation of Labor, 

242. 
Americanization, work of, 187- 

188; taught in night schools, 

188-189. 
American Railway Express, opera- 
tion of, 273. 
Anarchy, the exercise of liberty 

without restraint, 4. 
Animal life, conservation of, 260- 

261. 
Appeal, courts of, 227. 
Appian Way, famous highway, 

267. 
Aqueducts, of ancient Rome, 172. 

See Water supply. 
Arizona, irrigation in, 257. 
Arrow Rock dam, Idaho, 255, 256. 
Articles of Confederation, adop- 
tion of, 196; superseded by 

Constitution, 198. 
Assessment of property, 279. 
Associated charities, work of, 182- 

183. 
Athens, law-making in ancient, 

102. 
Athletics, promotion of, in schools, 

187. 
Authority, of parents, 2 ; in nation, 

8-9; governmental, and rights 



of the individual, 8-9; liberty 
and, in government, 10; exer- 
cise of, by the majority, 12. 

Authors, rights of, protected by 
copyright, 26. 

Autocracies, countries called, 70. 

Ballot, importance of, 68; secrecy 
of, 77, 79; forms of, 78, 79, 81; 
counting of, 80; a non-partisan, 
88; use of, in primary system of 
nomination, 92-93 ; movement 
for short, 96-98; an English, 98. 

Ballot box, symbol of people's rule, 
76. 

Baltimore, Md., police commis- 
sioner in, 141. 

Banks, function of, 30-31; savings, 
34-36; notes %issued by, 44; 
checking accounts at, 46-48. 

Barge Canal, New York, 268, 269. 

Bertillon cards, 140. 

Bill of Rights, English, 9, 195; 
American, 66. 

Blind, institutions for the, 253. 

Board of education, county, 135; 
city, 137-138. 

Bolivar, Simon, statue of, 287. 

Bonds, public loans effected 
through sale of, 282. 

Bosses, political, 83. 

Boston, Mass., police commis- 
sioner in, 141; lack of street 
planning in, 160; the Common 
in, 162. 

Boston Common, free speech on, 
66. 

Boycott, use of, 245. 

Brotherhood of Locomotive En- 
gineers, 242. 

Budgets, making of, 280. 

Building and loan associations, 38. 

Building laws, need of, 154, 167- 
168. 

Bush Terminal Docks, 110. 



323 



324 



Index 



Cabinet, the President's, 217. 

California, voting in, 103; char- 
ters for counties in, 131-132; 
state aid for roads in, 266. 

Canals, transportation on, 268- 
269. 

Candidates for office, importance 
of means of estimating, 95-99; 
qualifications of good, 99-100. 

Cape Cod Canal, 269. 

Capital, an economic force, 21; 
beginnings of, 23; and wealth, 
23 ; the partner of labor, 23 ; and 
division of labor, 26-28; paying 
for, 28-29; interest the pay- 
ment for use of, 29; profit an 
unusual reward for, 29; obtain- 
ing of, 29-30; a bank's, 31; 
thrift and, 33. 

Carriers of contagious diseases, 
150. 

Caucuses, nomination by, 90. 

Character of political candidates, 
99-100. 

Charity, public, 181-184. 

Checks, as money, 46-48. 

Chicago, 111., board of education 
in, 137; playgrounds and recrea- 
tion centers in, 164-165. 

Child labor, laws regulating, 246. 

Children, position of, in family, 2. 

Cities, growth and development 
of, 109-111; New York an 
example of growth of, 111-112; 
statistics of growth of, 112-113; 
increasing wants of, in develop- 
ment from villages, 114-115; 
government of, 118 ff.; viewed 
as business corporations, 118- 
120; legislation and administra- 
tion in government of, 120-121; 
forms of government of, 121- 
123; relation to counties in 
which located, 129; manage- 
ment of schools in, 137-138; 



planning of, 160-170; public 
utilities in, 172-179; costs of 
government of, 276; indebted- 
ness of, and of United States 
government, 282. 

Citizenship, good, 6; duties and 
privileges of, 11-12; meaning of 
American, 63; how acquired, 
63-64; privileges of, 64-68; right 
to vote the crowning privilege 
of, 68; duties of, 70 ff.; respon- 
sibilities of, 71-72; loyalty the 
chief essential of, 74; duties of, 
in elections, 76-81; duties of, 
toward political parties, 85; 
law-making duties of, 101-105; 
duties relating to preservation 
of health, 148-158; training for, 
186-191; jury duty one of im- 
portant responsibilities of, 225. 

City-manager plan of city govern- 
ment, 121-123. 

Civic beauty, attention to, 165- 
167. 

Civic centers, 167. 

Clan, as social group, 7; progres- 
sion from, to nation, 7-8. 

Clearing house, work of, 47. 

Cleveland, Ohio, civic center in, 
167. 

Closed shop, defined, 243. 

Coal, conservation of, 261-262. 

Coast and Geodetic Survey, 268. 

Coins, modern and ancient, 43, 45. 

Collective bargaining, 241-242. 

Combines, avoidance of competi- 
tion by, 56. 

Commission plan of city govern- 
ment, 121-123. 

Committee system in legislative 
bodies, 207-209. 

Communications, development of, 
264-274. 

Community, the local, 109-116; 
process of development of, 113- 



Index 



325 



115; forces tending to weaken, 
116; and health, 148; planning 
of, 160-170. 

Community spirit, an essential 
quahty, 115-116. 

Competition, benefits of, 20-21; 
good and evil effects of, in rela- 
tion to prices, 55-56. 

Congress, United States, 205-212; 
relation of President to, 219. 

Congressional committees, 207- 
209. 

Congressional Record, as source 
of information about political 
candidate, 95-96. 

Congressional townships, 125. 

Conservation, meaning of, 255; 
progress in, 255-262. 

Constabulary, state, 146. 

Constitution of United States, 9; 
provisions of, 64-68; drafting 
and adoption of, 198; Federal 
system under, 198-199; implied 
powers of, 199-200; Supreme 
Court chief guardian of, 230; 
text of, 299-320. 

Constitutional system, the, 195- 
201. 

Constitutions, state, 195-196. 

Consuls, duties of, 288. 

Contract, protection of right of, 
by law, 222. 

Conventions, national, 216-217. 

Convention system of nomination, 
90. 

Cooperation, in the family, 2; 
liberty and, 4; within a nation, 
8; in work, 14-21; poverty 
traceable to imperfect, 183- 
184. 

Copyright, reason for, 26. 

County, governmental division, 
129; government of, 129-133; 
and the schools, 135; health 
officer in, 158. 



Courts, function of, 221; trial, 
223-224; procedure in, 224-227; 
appellate, 227; Federal, 227- 
230; Supreme Court of United 
States, 228, 229; respect for, 
230; juvenile, 251-252. 

Crimes, punishment of, 222-223. 

Criminals, treatment of, 250-251. 

Currency. See Money. 

Dairies, inspection of, 156. 

Deaf and dumb, care of, 253. 

Debts, public, 281-282. 

Declar :tion of Independence, 9, 
63. 

Defectives and delinquents, care 
of, 250, 252-253. 

Demand, supply, competition, and, 
51-59. % 

Democracy, meaning of, 70; exam- 
ples of, 70-71; direct vs. repre- 
sentative, 102. 

Departments of government, 217. 

Depreciation of wealth, 28-29. 

Diminishing returns, law of, 53. 

Direct legislation, meaning of, 101. 

Diseases, contagious, preventive 
measures, 148-149; quarantine 
a protective measure, 149-150. 

District of Columbia, government 
of, 237. 

Division of labor, capital and, 26- 
28. 

Docks, provision for, 170. 

Drinking cups, public, 151. 

Education, training for citizen- 
ship by, 186; immediate pur- 
poses of, 186-187; social value 
of, 190-191. 

Election districts, 77. 

Elections, voting in, 76-79; hon- 
esty of, 80-81; national and 
local, 87-88. 

Electors, presidential, 216. 



326 



Index 



Electricity, supply of, in cities, 
175-177. 

Employers' Liability Law, 248. 

Ephebic oath, the, 118. 

Erie Canal, construction of, 111; 
transportation on, 268. 

Erosion of farm lands, 256. 

Europe, relations between United 
States and, 284-287. 

Examinations for policemen, 142. 

Executive department of govern- 
ment, 214-219. 

Expenditures, governmental, 280- 
281. 

Express service, 273. 

Family, the, 1 £F.; as protector and 
provider, 1; cooperation among 
members, 2; authority of par- 
ents, 2; as a type of government, 
2-3; enforcement of parents' 
law in, 3; liberty and restraint 
in, 3-4; and the clan, 7. 

Farms, conservation of, 256. 

Federal Aid Road Act, 266. 

Federal Reserve Banks, 44. 

Federal system, the, 198-199. 

Feeble-minded, treatment of, 252- 
253. 

Fees, raising of money by, 275. 

Finances of governments, 275-282. 

Fire, prevention of, in cities and 
towns, 145; protection against, 
in rural communities, 145; de- 
struction of forests by, 258-260. 

Fire departments, city, 143-144. 

Food, inspection of, 157. 

Foreign relations of United States, 
287-288. 

Forests, wasting of; 256, 258;' con- 
servation of, 258; destroyed by 
fires, 258-260. 

Forest Service, United States, 259. 

Franchise, defined, 172. 

Fraternalsocieties,insuranceby,40. 



Freedom of speech, guaranteed 
American citizens, 66. 

Garbage collection and disposal, 
153-154. 

Gas, supply of, in cities, 175-176. 

General property tax, 279. 

Gold, basis of system of currency, 
43. 

Gold certificates, 44. 

Government, family as a type of, 
2-3; made effective by use of 
force, 3; centers about family 
as social unit, 4; of nation, 8; 
liberty and authority in, 10; 
different forms of, 70-71; re- 
sponsibility of citizens concern- 
ing, 71-72; increasing complex- 
ity of, 72-73; local, 109-116; of 
cities, 118-123; town and town- 
ship, 125-128; county, 129-133; 
protection of life and property 
first duty of, 139; colonial, 195; 
of states, in early times, 195- 
196; of United States, 196-201; 
three departments of, 203; law- 
making (legislative) depart- 
ment, 203-212; law-enforcing 
(executive) department, 214- 
219; law-applying (judicial) de- 
partment, 221-231; of terri- 
tories and dependencies, 232- 
236; of District of Columbia, 
237; duty of, in labor disputes, 
245-246; cost of, 275; raising of 
money by, 275-279; budget sys- 
tem in, 280; increase in expen- 
ditures of, 280-281. 
Governor of state, duties of, 214- 

216. 
Grand jury, organization and 

duties of, 226-227. 
Guam, government of, 235-236. 

Habeas corpus, writ of, 67. 



Index 



327 



Hadley, Arthur T., quoted, 195. 
Harbors, improvement of, 268. 
Harding, President, 71; reading 

message before Congress, 218. 
Hawaii, government of, 233. 
Health, preservation of, 148 ff.; 

boards and officers of, 157-158. 
Highways, building of, 264-267. 
Holy Alliance, Monroe Doctrine 

an offset to, 285. 
Homes, owning of, 36-38. 
Housing in cities, problem of, 154; 

helped by right city planning ,= 

167-168; relation to poverty, 

183. 

Identification, Bureau of, in police 
department, 140-141. 

Illinois, township government in, 
127; county boards in, 129. 

Immigrants, effect of, on commu- 
nity spirit, 116; Americanization 
work for, 187-190. 

Impeachment of judges, 229-230. 

Imports, taxes on, 276-277. 

Incineration, disposal of garbage 
by, 154. 

Incomes, taxation of, 275, 278. 

Increasing returns, law of, 53. 

Indiana, township government in, 
127. 

Indictment of persons charged 
with crime, 226-227. 

Individual, rights of the, 8-9. 

Inheritances, taxation of, 278. 

Initiative, the, defined, 101; ad- 
vantages and disadvantages of 
referendum and, 104. 

Insane, care of the, 252-253. 

Institutes, teachers', 135. 

Insurance, advantages of, 38-40; 
forms of, 40. 

Interest, defined, 29; paid by 
savings banks, 35-36. 

Internal revenue taxes, 277-278. 



International law, 288-289. 

Interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion, regulation of railroads by, 
270. 

Inventions, patenting of, 26 ; effect 
of, on growth of cities, 109, 111. 

Iowa, township government in, 
127. 

Irrigation, work of, 255, 257. 

Irrigation districts, 178-179. 

Judges, election or appointment 
of, 225; supreme-coQrt and 
appellate, 227 ; of Federal courts, 
227, 229; of United States Su- 
preme Court, 228, 229. 

Judicial department of govern- 
ment, 221-231. 

Jury, trial by, 67, 224-225. 

Justice courts, 223-224. 

Juvenile courts, creation of, 251- 
252. 

Kansas, township government in, 
127; pay of legislators in, 205; 
Industrial Court in, 246. 

Kansas City, Mo., police commis- 
sioner in, 141; park system in, 
164. 

King, position and power of, 8-9. 

Labor, wages and, 56-58; prob- 
lems of, 241-248. See also Work. 

Laboratories, pubfic-health, 150- 
151; testing of milk in, 156. 

Labor Board, creation of, 271. 

Labor unions, 241-242; and labor 
monopoly, 242-244. 

Land, reclamation and conserva- 
tion of, 179, 255-256. 

Latin-American states, responsi- 
bifity of United States for, 286. 

Law, as exemphfied in the family, 
3; force necessary to make ef- 
fective, 3; the making of, 203- 



328 



Index 



212; carrying out the, 214-219; 
interpreting and applying the, 
221-230; respect for, and obe- 
dience to, 230; affecting labor, 
245-248; international, 288-289. 

Law-making by citizens, 101-105. 

Lawyers, work of, 225-226. 

League of Nations, 289-292. 

Legal tender, defined, 44. 

Legislation, administration and, 
in city government, 120-121. 

Legislative reference bureaus, 207. 

Legislatures, state, 204-205. 

Liberty, and r straint, 3-4; with- 
out restraint becomes anarchy, 
4; authority and, in govern- 
ment, 10; and self-government, 
11-12; guaranteed to American 
citizens, 63; protection of, by 
provisions of Constitution, 65. 

Life Saving Station Service, 268. 

Lighthouse Service, 268. 

Lincoln Highway, section of, 266. 

Lindsey, Judge Ben, and Denver 
juvenile court, 251-252. 

Loans, public, by means of bonds, 
282. 

Local government, 109-116. 

Los Angeles, charter for county 
of, 131-132; water supply of 
city, 155; harbor of, 170. 

Louisiana, parishes in, 129. 

Loyalty, supreme requisite to 
good citizenship, 74. 

Lynching, viewed as murder, 223. 

Machines, political, 83. 

Magazines, as sources of informa- 
tion about political candidates, 
95. 

Magna Charta, significance of, 
9. 

Majority, plurality and, 83-84. 

Marcus Aurelius, quotation from, 
240. 



Massachusetts, ballot used in, 78, 
79; Shays's Rebellion in, 197; 
state aid for roads in, 266. 

Mayor and council plan of city 
government, 121-123. 

Metals, conservation of, 261. 

Michigan, township government 
in, 127; county boards in, 129. 

Milk, securing of pure, 155-156. 

Minimum wage, the, 246. 

Ministers, United States, at for- 
eign capitals, 288. 

Minnesota, township government 
in, 127. 

Missouri, township government 
in, 127. 

Monarchies, government in, 8-9; 
autocratic, 70; constitutional or 
limited, 71. 

Money, representation of capital 
as, 29-30; use of, by banks, 30- 
31; function of, 42 ff.; distinc- 
tion between value and, 42-43; 
forms of, 43-44; a medium of 
exchange, 44-46; checks as, 
46-48; methods of raising, by 
governments, 275-276. 

Monopolies, working of, 53-55; 
pubhc-utility, 172. 

Monroe Doctrine, origin of, 285- 
286; extension of principle of, 
286; dear to American people, 
286-287. 

Moore, John Bassett, elected 
judge of international court, 
291. 

Mortgages, real-estate, 35. 

Nation, development of the, 7-8. 

Natural gas, waste of, 262. 

Naturalization, attaining of citi- 
zenship by, 63-64. 

Nebraska, township government 
in, 127. 

New England, town government 



Index 



329 



in, 125; schools and school dis- 
tricts in, 136. 

New Jersey, county boards in, 129 ; 
state aid for roads in, 266. 

Newspapers, as sources of infor- 
mation about pohtical candi- 
dates, 95. 

New York City, an example of 
growth of cities, 111-112; board 
of education in, 137; street plan 
of, 162, 163; elevated railway 
system in, 174; American !Mu- 
seum of N^atural History in, 189. 

New York State, township gov- 
ernment in, 127; county board 
in, 129; pay of law-makers in, 
205 ; state aid for roads in, 266 ; 
canals in, 268-269. 

Nomination, systems of, 90-94. 

North Dakota, township govern- 
ment in, 127. 

Northwest Territory, organiza- 
tion of, 232. 

Notes, promissory, 31; money 
lent by banks on, 35; treasury, 
44. 

Nurses, school, 157. 

Occupation, di\-ision of, 14-16. 
See ^york. 

Oceans, transportation on, 264, 
267. 

Ohio, township government in, 
127. 

Oil, conservation of, 262. 

Oklahoma, township government 
in, 127. 

Old-age insurance, 40. 

Ohmpic National Forest, Wash- 
ington, fire in, 259. 

Ordinance of 1787, 232. 

Oregon, pay of legislators in, 205. 

Outdoor poor relief, 181. 

Ownership, pubUc and private, 
173-175. 



Panama Canal, building of. 269. 

Parish, governmental division, 129. 

Parks and plavgrounds, city, 162, 
163-165. 

Parties, pohtical. 83-88. 

Patents, reason for, 26. 

Patriotism, spirit of, aroused by 
war, 292. 

Pavne. John Howard, home of, 
37. 

Pennsylvania, township govern- 
ment in, 127; state constabu- 
lary in, 146; pay of law-makers 
in, 205. 

Personal safety, right of, 222. 

Petitions, signing of, 105. 

Philippine Islands, government 
of, 234, 235. 

Picketing by strikers, 245. 

Pinchot, Gifford, Chief Forester, 
258. 

Planning, community, 160-170. 

Playgrounds. See Parks and play- 
grounds. 

Plurahty, defined, 83. 

Pohce. protection of life and prop- 
erty by. 139; classes of, 139-140; 
organization of, 141-142; per- 
sonnel of, 142; protection by, 
in rural communities, 145-146. 

Polling places in elections, 77. 

Poll taxes. 278. 

Poor rehef. See Poverty. 

Population of cities, 112-113. 

Porto Rico, government of, 233. 

Postal sa\Tngs banks, 36. 

Postal service, government, 272- 
273. 

Post Office Department, 272. 

Poverty, causes of, 181; public 
rehef of, 181-182; removal of 
causes of, 183. 

President of United States, duties 
of, 214; election of, 216-217; 
powers of, 217-219; messages 



330 



Index 



of, to Congress, 219 ; position of, 
219. 

Press, freedom of the, 66 

Prices, distinction between money, 
value, and, 42-43; defined, 48; 
rise and fall of, 48-49; effect of 
demand, supply, and competi- 
tion on, 51-56. 

Primary system of nomination, 
90-94. 

Prisons, reformatories and, 251. 

Probation, of convicted persons, 
251. ^ 

Production, importance of keeping 
up, 244-245. 

Profit, defined, 29. 

Profits, taxes on, 278. 

Property, defined, 23; rights of, 
23-25; security of, 67; protec- 
tion of rights of, by law, 222; 
taxation of, 279.'! 

Protective tariffs, 277. 

Public charges, care of, 250. 

PubHc Health Service, 158. 

Public ownership, arguments for 
and against, 173-175. 

Public-utility commissions, 177- 
178; regulation of railroads by, 
270. 

Quarantine, necessity for, in cases 
of contagious disease, 149- 
150. 

Railroads, relation of, to growth 
of cities, 111; correct location of 
lines, in city planning, 170; 
regulation of, 270; provisions 
of Act of 1920 affecting, 271- 
272; various plans for mgmage- 
ment of, 272. 

Reclamation of waste lands, 178- 
179, 255. 

Reclamation Service, United 
States, 255. 



Recreation centers. See Parks and 
playgrounds. 

Referendum, defined, 101; advan- 
tages and disadvantages of 
initiative and, 104. 

Regulation of public utilities, 
177-178. 

Rent, defined, 58-59; and the 
single tax, 59. 

Representatives, state, 204-205 ; 
United States, 206-207. 

Republics, governments called, 71. 

Restraint, liberty and, 3-4. 

Rights, protection of, by law, 
222. 

Rio Grande irrigation project, 179. 

Rivers, transportation on, 268. 

Roads, construction of, 264-267. 

Rome, Italy, Forum of, 168-169. 

Roosevelt, T., quoted on compe- 
tition, 21 ; on good laws, 62. 

Rural schools, 136. 

St. Louis, Mo., McKinley High 
School in, 137; police commis- 
sioner in, 141. 

Salt River irrigation project, 257. 

Samoa, naval governor of, 236. 

San Francisco, Cal., street plan in, 
160; municipal ownership of 
street-car Unes in, 177. 

Sanitation, progress in, 152 ; rural, 
158. 

Sa\'ing, meaning of, 26; relation of 
thrift to, 33; necessity for, 33- 
34. 

Saidngs banks, function of, 34-36 ; 
postal, 36. 

Schools, local management of, 
135-138; health examination of 
pupils in, 157; attention paid to 
physical welfare in, 186-187; 
Americanization work in, 188- 
189. 

School savings banks, 35. 



Index 



331 



Seattle, Wash., municipal street 
railway in, 177. 

Selectmen, board of, in tovms, 127. 

Self-government, liberty and, 11- 
12. 

Senators, state, 204-205; United 
States, 205-206. 

Sewers and sewage disposal in 
cities and towns, 152-153. 

Short-ballot movement, 96-98. 

Sickness, chief cause of poverty, 
181; measures for reducing, 183. 
See Health. 

Silver certificates, 44. 

Single tax, theory of, 59. 

Smallpox, vaccination against, 
151-152. 

Social insurance, 40. 

Social-reform laws, 183. 

Soldiers, vaccination of, 151-152. 

"Soo" Canal, 269. 

South Dakota, township govern- 
ment in, 128. 

Speech, freedom of, 66. 

Springfield, Mass., municipal 
buildings at, 119. 

State, Department of, 217. 

States, the county a unit for ad- 
ministration of business of, 132- 
133; early governments in, 195- 
196; powers of, under the Con- 
stitution, 198-199; legislatures 
of, 204-205 ; duties of governors 
as executives of, 214-216. 

States-rights doctrine, 199. 

Steamboat Inspection Service, 
268. 

Street-car service, provision of 
good, 170; a public utility, 172, 
177. 

Street planning, 160-162. 

Strike, weapon of organized labor, 
242. 

Student self-government, 11. 

Success, achieved by work, 21. 



Suit, story of a, to show coopera- 
tion in work, 16-19. 

Supply, demand and, 51-53. 

Supreme Court, United States, 
228, 229; chief guardian of Con- 
stitution, 230. 

Swamps, drainage of, 179, 255. 

Tariffs, kinds of, 277. 

Taxation, raising money by, 275; 
of imports, 276-277; internal 
revenue, 277-278; of inheri- 
tances, incomes, and profits, 
278; state and local, 278-279; 
burden of, borne by whole com- 
munity, 279-280. 

Telegraph service, regulation of, 
273-274. 

Telephone ser\T[^, a pubhc utility, 
172, 173; regulation of, 273- 
274. 

Territories, government of, 232^ 
236. 

Texas, senate chamber of state of, 
204. 

Thrift, defined, 33 ; and capital, 33 ; 
necessity for, 33-34. 

Thrift stamps, encouragement of 
saving by, 36. 

Towels, dangers of public, 151. 

Towns, 125; in New England, 125; 
officers of, 127, 128. 

Townships, organization and gov- 
ernment of, 125-128. 

Trades unions. See Labor unions. 

Transportation, relation between 
growth of cities and, 109-111; 
facilities for, to be included in 
community planning, 170; pub- 
lic vs. private ownership of 
means of, in cities, 177; impor- 
tance of easy means of, 264; by 
highways, 264-267; by water, 
267-270; by raikoads, 270; by 
air, 272. 



332 



Index 



Transportation Act of 1920, 270- 

272. 
Trees. See Forests. 
Trial by jury, 67, 224. 
Trials, procedure in, 225-226. 
Tuberculosis, due to crowding of 

people, 154; testing cows for, 

156. 
Tutuila, government of, 235. 
Typhoid fever, vaccination against, 

151-152. 

Unemployment, insurance cover- 
ing, 40; as a cause of poverty, 
181. 

Unions, labor, 241-242; and labor 
monopoly, 242-244. 

United States, development of 
constitutional system in, 195- 
200; growth of powers of, 200- 
201; departments of govern- 
ment of, 203 ff. ; relations with 
Europe, 284-287. 

United States courts, 227-230. 

UtiUties, public, 172-179. 

Vaccination, a duty of citizenship, 
151-152. 

Value, distinction between money, 
prices, and, 42-43. 

Veto, use of, by governor or Presi- 
dent, 210; pocket, 212. 

Vigilance required of citizens in 
elections, 81. 

Villages, life in the first, 109; 
growth of cities from, 109-111. 

Virgin Islands, purchase of, 233; 
government of, 236. 

Vocational selection, study of, 186. 

Voting, as a right of American 
citizens, 68; qualifications for, 
76-77; forms of ballot for, 78, 
79; at primaries, 90-94; first 
step in, the proper estimating 
of candidates, 95-100; initiative 



and referendum, 101 ; coming to 
a decision in, 104; in town meet- 
ings, 125-127. 
Voting machines, 80. 

Wages, 28; factors determining, 
56-57; modern increase in, 57- 
58. 

Wampum, use of, as money, 45. 

War measures, apphed to lines of 
communication and transporta- 
tion, 270. 

Washington, D. C, street plan of, 
161; Capitol at, 201. 

Washington, George, constitu- 
tional convention presided over 
by, 198; elected President, 198; 
sword of, 285. 

Water, transportation by, 267- 
270. 

Water supply, need of pure, 155; 
an example of pubhc utility, 
175. 

Waterways, natural, 267-268. 

Ways and Means, Committee on, 
208. 

Wealth, relation of capital and, 23. 

Weehawken, N. J., railroad yards 
at, 271. 

Wharves, planning for suitable, 
170. 

Whitman, Walt, on the mission of 
government, 110. 

Whittier, J. G., quotation from, 
68. 

Wild life, conservation of, 260- 
261. 

William and Mary, College of, in 
Virginia, 190. 

Williamsburg, Va., courthouse at, 
130. 

Wilson, Woodrow, League of Na- 
tions promoted by, 292. 

Wisconsin, township government 
in, 127; county boards in, 129. 



Index 



333 



Work, necessity for, 14; division 
of, 14-16; kinds of, 19-20; com- 
petition essential to successful, 
20-21; needful to success, 21; 
capital the partner of, 21, 23-31. 

Workmen's compensation, 247- 
248. 



Worship, freedom of, 66. 

Yellowstone National Park, a 
game sanctuary, 260-261. 

Zoning, importance of, in city 
planning, 168-169. 




BOOK NOTICES 




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THE AMERICAN SPIRIT 

A BASIS FOR WORLD DEMOCRACY 

Edited by 
Paul Monroe, Ph.D., LL.D. ^„^ Irving E. Miller, Ph.D. 
Columbia University BelHngham Normal School 



T 



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I Many highly significant racts contained in this book can be | 

I obtained from no other source. Problems are presented in | 

I their relation to world politics and in their historical and geo- | 

I graphical setting. The latest reliable statistics are given when- | 

I ever they serve to make a point clear. | 

I There are 21^ hand-drawn maps, all specific and clear, | 

I They are designed to bring out particular economic y | 

I political, or geographical features treated in the text, | 

I A reading of The New World will enable the student of geog- | 

I raphy, history, and economics to see the significance of the | 

I changes that have been made in the map of the world, to un- | 

I derstand the influences that have brought them about, to esti- | 

I mate their bearing upon the course of political events, and to | 

I think in a more comprehensive way about the many vital prob- | 

I lems in the field of international relations. | 

I Cloth, vii -\- 612 pages. Price i^t-oo | 

I WORLD BOOK COMPANY | 

I YOXKERS-ON-HUDSON, NeW YoRK | 

I 2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago | 

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I CONSERVATION of HEALTH | 

I "Our national health is physically our greatest asset. To 1 

I prevent any possible deterioration of the American stock 1 

I should be a national ambition." — Theodore Roosevelt. i 

I IIIIIIIIIMIIIII £ 

I PRIMER OF HYGIENE | 

I By John W. Ritchie of the College of William and Mary in 5 

I Virginia and J. S. Caldwell of the State College of Wash- S 

i ington. Illustrated. Cloth. | 

I The purpose of this first book is to teach the lower s 

I grade pupil what he himself can do to keep his body | 

I in health — personal hygiene. | 

I PRIMER OF SANITATION 1 

I By John W. Ritchie. Illustrated. Cloth. | 

I The second book in the series and the fir^t in the Eng- | 

i lish language to teach fifth or sixth gracie pupils how | 

I , to escape germ diseases and how to cooperate in con- | 

I serving community health — public hygiene. | 

I PRIMER OF PHYSIOLOGY f 

I By John W. Ritchie. Illustrated. Cloth. | 

I Teaches health conservation through practical appli- [ 

1 cations to daily life of modern hygiene based on i 

i physiological principles as required in sixth or seventh j 

I grades; the most advanced of the three primers. i 

I HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY | 

I By John W. Ritchie. Illustrated in black and in colors. i 

I Cloth. I 

I An advanced book which completes the series and | 

I gives the essentials of physiology, and the knowledge | 

I of hygiene, bacteriology, and sanitation that every j 

i American citizen needs. i 



I WORLD BOOK COMPANY | 

i YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NeW YoRK | 

I 2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago | 

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I CONSERVATION SERIES I 



I Conservation Reader | 

I By HAROLD W. FAIRBANKS, Ph. D. | 

I Lecturer, University of California', Geography Supervisor Berkeley i 

5 Public Schools 1 

I A small book bringing out in a simple and interesting manner the i 

I principles of conservation of natural resources has long been wanted, i 

i for there has been little on the subject that could be placed in the hands | 

I of pupils. It is to answer this need that Fairbanks' Conservation | 

= Reader has been prepared. | 

i The book touches upon every phase of conservation, but it deals at i 

i greatest length with saving the soil, the forests, and wild life. It is one f 

i of the author's main purposes to arouse a stronger sentiment for pre- i 

i serving what remains of the forests as well as for extending their areas. f 

I This is because proper forestation will lessen the danger of floods and I 

I of erosion of the soil, and it will encourage the return of the wild crea- | 

= tures that are of so much economic importance and add so much to the I 

I joy of life. 1 

1 The matter is presented in an easy narrative style that is calculated to i 

i arouse the intelligent interest of children. The text is illustrated with i 

i photographs of wild animals, trees, landscapes, and rarely beautiful i 

1 birds, printed in colors. The subject is timely and the treatment is = 

I happy throughout. I 

I Conservation Reader should be used as a reader or as a book for | 

i regular study in every elementary school in the country. | 

i Cloth, vi + 2i6 pages. I 

I Price $1.40. I 

I WORLD BOOK COMPANY | 

I YoNKERS-ON-HuDSON, NeW YoRK | 

1 2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago | 
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